Useful products generated from interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR) complex data include height measurement, coherent change detection, and classification. The IFSAR coherence is a spatial measure of complex correlation between two collects, a product of IFSAR signal processing. A tacit assumption in such IFSAR signal processing is that the terrain height is constant across an averaging box used in the process of correlating the two images. This paper presents simulations of IFSAR coherence if two targets with different heights exist in a given correlation cell, a condition in IFSAR collections produced by layover. It also includes airborne IFSAR data confirming the simulation results. The paper concludes by exploring the implications of the results on IFSAR height measurements and classification.
MRS Internet Journal of Nitride Semiconductor Research
Bartram, Michael E.
Bis(cyclopentadienyl)magnesium (MgCp2) is used commonly as a source for doping nitride materials with magnesium. Increased oxygen incorporation known to accompany the use of MgCp2 makes the purity of this precursor an important consideration in nitride CVD. Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GCMS) methods have now been developed for the identification of volatile impurities in MgCp2. Diethylether, an oxygen containing organic compound (CH 3CH2OCH2CH3), and additional organic impurities were found in the MgCp2 supplied by three manufacturers. Subsequent refinements in the synthetic processes by these companies have resulted in the availability of MgCp2 free of ether and other organic impurities as determined by GCMS.
Metal-reinforced Al2-O3-matrix composites were prepared using reactive hot pressing. The volume fraction of the reinforcing phase was controlled by the stoichiometry of the particular displacement reaction used. Dense Al2O3-Ni and Al2O3-Nb composites were fabricated using this technique. The best combination of strength, 610 MPa, and toughness, 12 MPam 1/2 , was found for the Al2O3-Ni composites. Indentation cracks and fracture surfaces showed evidence of ductile deformation of the Ni phase. The Al2O3-Nb composites had high strength, but the toughness was lower than expected due to the poor bonding between the Nb and Al2O3 phases.
Industrial, military, medical, and research and development applications of lasers frequently require a beam with a specified irradiance distribution in some plane. A common requirement is a laser profile that is uniform over some cross-section. Such applications include laser/material processing, laser material interaction studies, fiber injection systems, optical data/image processing, lithography, medical applications, and military applications. Laser beam shaping techniques can be divided in to three areas: apertured beams, field mappers, and multi-aperture beam integrators. An uncertainty relation exists for laser beam shaping that puts constraints on system design. In this paper we review the basics of laser beam shaping and present applications and limitations of various techniques.
Ongoing hydrothermal Cs-Ti-Si-O-H2O phase investigations has produced several new ternary phases including a novel microporous Cs-silicotitanate molecular sieve, SNL-B with the approximate formula of Cs3TiSi3O9.5 · 3H2O SNL-B is only the second molecular sieve, Cs-silicotitanate phase reported to have been synthesized by hydrothermal methods. Crystallites are very small (0.1 x 2 μm2) with a blade-like morphology. SNL-B is confirmed to be a three-dimensional molecular sieve by a variety of characterization techniques (N2 adsorption, ion exchange, water adsorption/desorption, solid state cross polarization-magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance). SNL-B is able to desorb and adsorb water from its pores while retaining its crystal structure and exchanges Cs cations readily. Additional techniques were used to describe fundamental properties (powder X-ray diffraction, FTIR, 29Si and 133Cs MAS NMR, DTA, SEM/EDS, ion selectivity, and radiation stability). The phase relationships of metastable SNL-B to other hydrothermally synthesized Cs-Ti-Si-O-H2O phases are discussed, particularly its relationship to a Cs-silicotitanate analogue of pharmacosiderite, and a novel condensed phase, a polymorph of Cs2TiSi6O15 (SNL-A). (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Ongoing hydrothermal Cs-Ti-Si-O-H2O phase investigations has produced several new ternary phases including a novel microporous Cs-silicotitanate molecular sieve, SNL-B with the approximate formula of Cs3TiSi3O9.5·3H2O. SNL-B is only the second molecular sieve, Cs-silicotitanate phase reported to have been synthesized by hydrothermal methods. Crystallites are very small (0.1×2 μm2) with a blade-like morphology. SNL-B is confirmed to be a three-dimensional molecular sieve by a variety of characterization techniques (N2 adsorption, ion exchange, water adsorption/desorption, solid state cross polarization-magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance). SNL-B is able to desorb and adsorb water from its pores while retaining its crystal structure and exchanges Cs cations readily. Additional techniques were used to describe fundamental properties (powder X-ray diffraction, FTIR, 29Si and 133Cs MAS NMR, DTA, SEM/EDS, ion selectivity, and radiation stability). The phase relationships of metastable SNL-B to other hydrothermally synthesized Cs-Ti-Si-O-H2O phases are discussed, particularly its relationship to a Cs-silicotitanate analogue of pharmacosiderite, and a novel condensed phase, a polymorph of Cs2TiSi6O15 (SNL-A).
In this article we concisely present several modern strategies that are applicable to drift-dominated carrier transport in higher-order deterministic models such as the drift-diffusion, hydrodynamic, and quantum hydrodynamic systems. The approaches include extensions of `upwind' and artificial dissipation schemes, generalization of the traditional Scharfetter-Gummel approach, Petrov-Galerkin and streamline-upwind Petrov Galerkin (SUPG), `entropy' variables, transformations, least-squares mixed methods and other stabilized Galerkin schemes such as Galerkin least squares and discontinuous Galerkin schemes. The treatment is representative rather than an exhaustive review and several schemes are mentioned only briefly with appropriate reference to the literature. Some of the methods have been applied to the semiconductor device problem while others are still in the early stages of development for this class of applications. We have included numerical examples from our recent research tests with some of the methods. A second aspect of the work deals with algorithms that employ unstructured grids in conjunction with adaptive refinement strategies. The full benefits of such approaches have not yet been developed in this application area and we emphasize the need for further work on analysis, data structures and software to support adaptivity. Finally, we briefly consider some aspects of software frameworks. These include dial-an-operator approaches such as that used in the industrial simulator PROPHET, and object-oriented software, support such as those in the SANDIA National Laboratory framework SIERRA.
The need to register data is abundant in applications such as: world modeling, part inspection and manufacturing, object recognition, pose estimation, robotic navigation, and reverse engineering. Registration occurs by aligning the regions that are common to multiple images. The largest difficulty in performing this registration is dealing with outliers and local minima while remaining efficient. A commonly used technique, iterative closest point, is efficient but is unable to deal with outliers or avoid local minima. Another commonly used optimization algorithm, simulated annealing, is effective at dealing with local minima but is very slow. Therefore, the algorithm developed in this paper is a hybrid algorithm that combines the speed of iterative closest point with the robustness of simulated annealing. Additionally, a robust error function is incorporated to deal with outliers. This algorithm is incorporated into a complete modeling system that inputs two sets of range data, registers the sets, and outputs a composite model.
Sandia National Laboratories has learned through their process of technology transfer that not all high tech transfers are alike. They are not alike by the nature of the customers involved, the process of becoming involved with these customers and finally and most importantly the very nature of the technology itself. Here, the authors focus on technology transfer in the microsystems arena and specifically the sacrificial surface version of microsystems. They have learned and helped others learn that many MEMS applications are best realized through the use of surface micromachining (SMM). This is because SMM builds on the substantial integrated circuit industry. In this paper, the authors review Sandia's process for transferring a disruptive MEMS technology in numerous cases.
Sandia National Laboratories has been studying Energy Storage Systems since the late 1970s. To identify applications of energy storage, a two-phase Opportunities Analysis was conceptualized in FY94. Phase I of the project was completed and published in 1995. Phase II of the project is an extension of Phase I to reexamine the identified applications in the dynamic environment of today.
Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) which operate in multiple transverse optical modes have been rapidly adopted into present data communication applications which rely on multi-mode optical fiber. However, operation only in the fundamental mode is required for free space interconnects and numerous other emerging VCSEL applications. Two device design strategies for obtaining single mode lasing in VCSELs based on mode selective loss or mode selective gain are reviewed and compared. Mode discrimination is attained with the use of a thick tapered oxide aperture positioned at a longitudinal field null. Mode selective gain is achieved by defining a gain aperture within the VCSEL active region to preferentially support the fundamental mode. VCSELs which exhibit greater than 3 mW of single mode output power at 850 nm with mode suppression ratio greater than 30 dB are reported.
Polysilsesquioxane foams and gels of the formula (RSiO1.5)n were produced via the catalytic an stoichiometric redistribution of organohydridosiloxanes. The extent of reaction was followed by both infrared (IR) and solid state NMR spectroscopy, following the disappearance of the SiH in the starting oligosiloxane.
An overview is given on the current status of three-dimensional (3D) photonic crystals. The realization of new 3d photonic crystal structures, the creation of high Q microcavities and the building of waveguide bends are presented. These devices form the basic building blocks for applications in signal processing and low threshold lasers.
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant was licensed for disposal of transuranic wastes generated by the US Department of Energy. The facility consists of a repository mined in a bedded salt formation, approximately 650 m below the surface. Regulations promulgated by the US Environmental Protection Agency require that performance assessment calculations for the repository include the possibility that an exploratory drilling operation could penetrate the waste disposal areas at some time in the future. Release of contaminated solids could reach the surface during a drilling intrusion. One of the mechanisms for release, known as spallings, can occur if gas pressures in the repository exceed the hydrostatic pressure of a column of drilling mud. Calculation of solids releaes for spallings depends critically on the conceptual models for the waste, for the spallings process, and assumptions regarding driller parameters and practices. This paper presents a review of the evolution of these models during the regulatory review of the Compliance Certification Application for the repository. A summary and perspectives on the implementation of conservative assumptions in model development are also provided.
Laser deposits fabricated from two different compositions of 304L stainless steel powder were characterized to determine the nature of the solidification and solid state transformations. One of the goals of this work was to determine to what extent novel microstructures consisting of single-phase austenite could be achieved with the thermal conditions of the LENS process. Although ferrite-free deposits were not obtained, structures with very low ferrite content were achieved. It appeared that, with slight changes in alloy composition, this goal could be met via two different solidification and transformation mechanisms.
This work points out that the costates are actually discontinuous functions of time for optimal control problems with Coulomb friction. In particular these discontinuities occur at the time points where the velocity of the system changes sign. To our knowledge, this has not been noted before. This phenomenon is demonstrated on a minimum-time problem with Coulomb friction and the consistency of discontinuous costates and switching functions with respect to the input switches is shown.
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) batteries continue to be employed in a wide variety of applications for telecommunications and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). With the rapidly growing penetration of Internet services, the requirements for standby power systems appear to be changing. For example, at last year's INTELEC, high voltage standby power systems up to 300-vdc were discussed as alternatives to the traditional 48-volt power plant. At the same time, battery reliability and the sensitivity of VRLAs to charging conditions (e.g., in-rush current, float voltage and temperature), continue to be argued extensively. Charge regimes which provide 'off-line' charging or intermittent charge to the battery have been proposed. Some of these techniques go against the widely accepted rules of operation for batteries to achieve optimum lifetime. Experience in the telecom industry with high voltage systems and these charging scenarios is limited. However, GNB has several years of experience in the installation and operation of large VRLA battery systems that embody many of the power management philosophies being proposed. Early results show that positive grid corrosion is not accelerated and battery performance is mantained even when the battery is operated at a partial state-of-charge for long periods of time.
The Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative (ASCI) computational grid is being constructed to interconnect the high performance computing resources of the nuclear weapons complex. The grid will simplify access to the diverse computing, storage, network, and visualization resources, and will enable the coordinated use of shared resources regardless of location. To match existing hardware platforms, required security services, and current simulation practices, the Globus MetaComputing Toolkit was selected to provide core grid services. The ASCI grid extends Globus functionality by operating as an independent grid, incorporating Kerberos-based security, interfacing to Sandia's Cplant™, and extending job monitoring services. To fully meet ASCI's needs, the architecture layers distributed work management and criteria-driven resource selection services on top of Globus. These services simplify the grid interface by allowing users to simply request "run code X anywhere". This paper describes the initial design and prototype of the ASCI grid.
This paper presents an investigation of a technique for using two-dimensional bodies composed of simple polygons with a body-decoupled uniform Cartesian grid in the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo method (DSMC). The method employs an automated grid preprocessing scheme beginning from a CAD geometry definition file, and is based on polygon triangulation using a trapezoid algorithm. A particle-body intersection time comparison is presented between the Icarus DSMC code using a body-fitted structured grid, and using a structured body-decoupled Cartesian grid with both linear and logarithmic search techniques. A comparison of neutral flow over a cylinder is presented using the structured body fitted grid, and the Cartesian body de-coupled grid.
In this paper we describe a high amplitude electrostatic drive for surface micromachined mechanical oscillators that may be suitable for vibratory gyroscopes. It is an advanced design of a previously reported dual mass oscillator (Dyck, et. al., 1999). The structure is a 2 degree-of-freedom, parallel-plate driven motion amplifier, termed the secondary mass drive oscillator (SMD oscillator). During each cycle the device contacts the drive plates, generating large electrostatic forces. Peak-to-peak amplitudes of 54 μm have been obtained by operating the structure in air with an applied voltage of 11 V. We describe the structure, present the analysis and design equations, and show recent results that have been obtained, including frequency response data, power dissipation, and out-of-plane motion.
The Transferable Potentials for Phase Equilibria-United Atom (TraPPE-UA) force field for hydrocarbons is extended to alkenes and alkylbenzenes by introducing the following pseudo-atoms: CH2(sp2), CH(sp2), C(sp2), CH(aro), R-C(aro) for the link to aliphatic side chains and C(aro) for the link of two benzene rings. In this united-atom force field, the nonbonded interactions of the hydrocarbon pseudo-atoms are solely governed by Lennard-Jones 12-6 potentials, and the Lennard-Jones well depth and size parameters for the new pseudo-atoms were determined by fitting to the single-component vapor-liquid-phase equilibria of a few selected model compounds. Configurational-bias Monte Carlo simulations in the NVT version of the Gibbs ensemble were carried out to calculate the single-component vapor-liquid coexistence curves for ethene, propene, 1-butene, trans- and cis-2-butene, 2-methylpropene, 1,5-hexadiene, 1-octene, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, propylbenzene, isopropylbenzene, o-, m-, and p-xylene, and naphthalene. The phase diagrams for the binary mixtures of (supercritical) ethene/n-heptane and benzene/n-pentane were determined from simulations in the NpT Gibbs ensemble. Although the TraPPE-UA force field is rather simple and makes use of relatively few different pseudo-atoms, its performance, as judged by comparisons to other popular force fields and available experimental data, is very satisfactory.
Preconcentration is a critical analytical procedure when designing a microsystem for trace chemical detection, because it can purify a sample mixture and boost the small analyte concentration to a much higher level allowing a better analysis. This paper describes the development of a micro-fabricated planar preconcentrator for the μChemLab™ at Sandia. To guide the design, an analytical model to predict the analyte transport, adsorption and desorption process in the preconcentrator has been developed. Experiments have also been conducted to analyze the adsorption and desorption process and to validate the model. This combined effort of modeling, simulation, and testing has led us to build a reliable, efficient preconcentrator with good performance.
A study of zeolite crystallization from sol-gel precursors using the vapor phase transport synthesis method has been performed. Zeolites (ZSM-5, ZSM-48, zeolite P, and sodalite) were crystallized by contacting vapor phase organic or organic-water mixtures with dried sodium silicate and dried sodium alumino-silicate gels. For each precursor gel, a ternary phase system of vapor phase organic reactant molecules was explored. The vapor phase reactant mixtures ranged from pure ethylene diamine, triethylamine, or water, to an equimolar mixture of each. In addition, a series of gels with varied physical and chemical properties were crystallized using the same vapor phase solvent mixture for each gel. The precursor gels and the crystalline products were analyzed via scanning electron microscopy, electron dispersive spectroscopy, X-ray mapping, powder X-ray diffraction, nitrogen surface area, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermal analyses. The product phase and purity as a function of the solvent mixture, precursor gel structure, and precursor gel chemistry is discussed.
The desire to move high-energy Pulsed Power systems from the laboratory to practical field systems requires the development of compact lightweight drivers. This paper concerns an effort to develop such a system based on a plastic laminate strip Blumlein as the final pulse shaping stage for a 600 kV, 50ns, 5-ohm driver. A lifetime and breakdown study conducted with small-area samples identified Kapton sheet impregnated with Propylene Carbonate as the best material combination of those evaluated. The program has successfully demonstrated techniques for folding large area systems into compact geometry's and vacuum impregnating the laminate in the folded systems. The major operational challenges encountered revolve around edge grading and low inductance, low impedance switching. The design iterations and lessons learned will be discussed. A multistage prototype testing program has demonstrated 600kV operation on a short 6ns line. Full-scale prototypes are currently undergoing development and testing.
The accuracy of solar cells calibrated as primary reference cells is directly dependent on the accuracy of the pyrheliometer used to measure the direct beam solar irradiance on the cell. Pyrheliometers are also used in measuring performance of concentrating photovoltaic modules. In order to reduce errors in photovoltaic performance measurements, we have investigated the calibration uncertainties for pyrheliometers from two manufacturers. Our calibration comparisons are relative to an absolute cavity radiometer traceable to the World Radiometric Reference. This paper quantifies the effects of aging, temperature, time-rate-of-change of temperature, wind, solar spectral shifts, linearity, window transmission, and solar tracking on pyrheliometer calibrations. Uncertainty remaining after accounting for these factors is 0.8% at the 2-sigma level.
The objective of this study was to investigate the technology used by Spectrolab Inc. to manufacture photovoltaic modules that have provided twenty years of reliable service at Natural Bridges National Monument in southeastern Utah. A field survey, system performance tests, and a series of module and materials tests have confirmed the durability of the modules in the array. The combination of manufacturing processes, materials, and quality controls used by Spectrolab resulted in modules that have maintained a performance level close to the original specifications for twenty years. Specific contributors to the durability of the modules included polyinyl-butyral (PVB) encapsulant, expanded metal interconnects, silicon oxide anti-reflective coating, and excellent solder/substrate solderability.
A new valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) gel motive power battery and PV system power center have been tested in the laboratory and at a PV hybrid telecommunication site. The power center provides battery charge control, system remote communications, and data acquisition at the field test site. Extensive laboratory and field-test data were used to improve battery performance by optimizing regulation voltages, finish-charge, and system design. After 1.5-years of service, battery and charge controller performance have met all performance requirements for the remote communications site at Sandia National Laboratories.
The bulk electrical anisotropy of sedimentary formations is a macroscopic phenomenon whic h can result from the presence of sand/shale laminae and varations in grain size and pore space. Accounting for its effects on induction log response is an ongoing research problem for the w ell-logging communit y since these types of sedimentary stuctures have long been correlated with productive hydrocarbon reservoirs. Presented here is a finite difference method for sim ulatingEM induction in a fully 3D anisotropic medium. This w ork differs from previous modeling efforts in that the electrical conductivity of the formation is represented as a full 3×3 tensor whose elements can vary arbitrarily with position throughout the formation. As an example, we simulate borehole induction tool responses in a crossbedded eolian sandstone to demonstrate the challenge faced by interpreters when electrical anisotropy is neglected.
Photovoltaic (PV) power systems, like other electrical systems, may be subject to unexpected ground faults. Installed PV systems always have invisible elements other than those indicated by their electrical schematics. Stray inductance, capacitance and resistance are distributed throughout the system. Leakage currents associated with the PV modules, the interconnected array, wires, surge protection devices and conduit add up and can become large enough to look like a ground-fault. PV systems are frequently connected to other sources of power or energy storage such as batteries, standby generators, and the utility grid. This complex arrangement of distributed power and energy sources, distributed impedance and proximity to other sources of power requires sensing of ground faults and proper reaction by the ground-fault protection devices. The different dc grounding requirements (country to country) often add more confusion to the situation. This paper discusses the ground-fault issues associated with both the dc and ac side of PV systems and presents test results and operational impacts of backfeeding commercially available ac ground-fault protection devices under various modes of operation. Further, the measured effects of backfeeding the tripped ground-fault devices for periods of time comparable to anti-islanding allowances for utility interconnection of PV inverters in the United States are reported.
Conference Record of the IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
Aiken, Daniel J.
Triple junction InGaP/GaAs/Ge solar cells are highly current mismatched due to the excess current generating capability of the germanium subcell. This severe current mismatch invites new approaches for increasing performance beyond that of current triple junctions. Presented here are two approaches for improving the efficiency of III-V multi-junctions beyond that of current triple junction technology. Both of these approaches involve the use of thin epitaxial germanium and do not require the development of new ∼1eV photovoltaic materials. The theoretical AM0 efficiency is over 30%. Modeling suggests the potential for over 1.5% absolute efficiency gain with respect to current InGaP/GaAs/Ge triple junction solar cells.
Sub-wavelength periodic texturing (gratings) of crystalline-silicon (c-Si) surfaces for solar cell applications can be designed for maximizing optical absorption in thin c-Si films. We have investigated c-Si grating structures using rigorous modeling, hemispherical reflectance, and internal quantum efficiency measurements. Model calculations predict almost ∼ 100 % energy coupling into obliquely propagating diffraction orders. By fabrication and optical characterization of a wide range of ID & 2D c-Si grating structures, we have achieved broadband, low (∼ 5 %) reflectance without an anti-reflection film. By integrating grating structures into conventional solar cell designs, we have demonstrated short-circuit current density enhancements of 3.4 and 4.1 mA/cm2 for rectangular and triangular 1D grating structures compared to planar controls. The effective path length enhancements due to these gratings were 2.2 and 1.7, respectively. Optimized 2D gratings are expected to have even better performance.
A maskless plasma texturing technique using Reactive Ion Etching for silicon solar cells results in a very low reflectance of 5.4 % before, and 3.9 % after SiN deposition. A detailed study of surface recombination and emitter properties was made, then solar cells were fabricated using the DOSS solar cell process. Different plasma-damage removal treatments are tested to optimize low lifetime solar cell efficiencies. Highest efficiencies are observed for little or no plasma-damage removal etching on mc-Si. Increased Jsc due to the RIE texture proved superior to a single layer anti-reflection coating. This indicates that RIE texturing is a promising texturing technique, especially applicable on lower lifetime (multicrystalline) silicon. The use of non-toxic, non-corrosive SF6 makes this process attractive for mass production.
The contact adhesive forces between two surfaces, one being a soft hemisphere and the other being a hard plate, can readily be determined by applying an external compressive load to mate the two surfaces and subsequently applying a tensile load to peel the surfaces apart. The contact region is assumed the superposition of elastic Hertzian pressure and of the attractive surface forces that act only over the contact area. What are the effects of the degree of surface contamination on adhesive forces? Clean aluminum surfaces were coated with hexadecane as a controlled contaminant. The force required to pull an elastomeric hemisphere from a surface was determined by contact mechanics, via the JKR model, using a model siloxane network for the elastomeric contact sphere. Due to the dispersive nature of the elastomer surface, larger forces were required to pull the sphere from a contaminated surface than a clean aluminum oxide surface.
A new class of semiconductor laser is presented that does not require p-n junctions. Spectral narrowing, lasing thresholds, beam divergence, temporal narrowing, and energies are shown for these lasers based on current filaments in bulk GaAs.
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plan requires a dependable shaft seal system to isolate the waste from the biosphere. This paper describes the shaft sealing system, which is designed to limit fluid transport through the four existing shafts. The design approach applies redundancy to functional elements and specifies multiple, common, low-permeability materials to ensure reliable performance. The system comprises 13 elements that completely fill the shafts with engineered materials possessing high density and low permeability. Laboratory and field measurements of component properties and performance provide the basis for the design and related evaluations. Hydrologic, mechanical, thermal, and physical features of the system are evaluated in a series of calculations. These calculations indicate that the design limits transport of fluids within the shafts, thereby limiting transport of hazardous material to regulatory boundaries. Additionally, the use or adaptation of existing technologies for seal construction combined with the use of available common materials assure that the design can be constructed.
The theory for immiscible mixtures by Drumheller and Bedform was compared with the theory of Passman, Nunziato, and Walsh. The conditions under these theories reduce to an equivalent formulation are described, and the differences in their microinertial descriptions are also investigated. Two variables play special roles in both theories. They are the true material density and the volume fraction.
A long-standing conjecture in combinatorial optimization says that the integrality gap of the famous Held-Karp relaxation of the symmetric TSP is precisely 4/3. In this paper, we show that a slight strengthening of this conjecture implies a tight 4/3 integrality gap for a linear programming relaxation of the asymmetric TSP. This is surprising since no constant-factor approximation is known for the latter problem. Our main tools are a new characterization of the integrality gap for linear objective functions over polyhedra, and the isolation of `hard-to-round' solutions of the relaxations.
A capacitated covering integer programs (IP) is an integer program of the form min{cx|Ux≥d, 0≤x≤b, x∈Z+}, where all entries of c, U and d are nonnegative. Given such a formulation, the ratio between the optimal integer solution and the optimal solution to the linear program relaxation can be as bad as ∥d∥, even when U consists of a single row. It is shown that by adding additional inequalities, this ratio can be improved significantly. In the general case, the improved ratio is shown to be bounded by the maximum number of non-zero coefficients in a row of U, and a polynomial-time approximation is proved to achieve this bound.
The decomposition of unconfined rigid polyurethane foam has been modeled by a kinetic bond-breaking scheme describing degradation of a primary polymer and formation of a thermally stable secondary polymer. The bond-breaking scheme is resolved using percolation theory to describe evolving polymer fragments. The polymer fragments vaporize according to individual vapor pressures. Kinetic parameters for the model were obtained from thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). The chemical structure of the foam was determined from the preparation techniques and ingredients used to synthesize the foam. Scale-up effects were investigated by simulating the response of an incident heat flux of 25 W/cm2 on a partially confined 8.8-cm diameter by 15-cm long right circular cylinder of foam that contained an encapsulated component. Predictions of internal foam and component temperatures, as well as regression of the foam surface, were in agreement with measurements using thermocouples and X-ray imaging.
An algorithm known as SMAC (Synthesize Modes And Correlate), based on principles of modal filtering, has been in development for a few years. The new capabilities of the automated version are demonstrated on test data from a complex shell/payload system. Examples of extractions from impact and shaker data are shown. The automated algorithm extracts 30 to 50 modes in the bandwidth from each column of the frequency response function matrix. Examples of the synthesized Mode Indicator Functions (MIFs) compared with the actual MIFs show the accuracy of the technique. A data set for one input and 170 accelerometer outputs can typically be reduced in an hour. Application to a test with some complex modes is also demonstrated.
The spectacular progress made during the last few years in reaching high energy densities in fast implosions of annular current sheaths (fast Z pinches) opens new possibilities for a broad spectrum of experiments, from x-ray generation to controlled thermonuclear fusion and astrophysics. At present Z pinches are the most intense laboratory x-ray sources (1.8 MJ in 5 ns from a volume 2 mm in diameter and 2 cm tall). Powers in excess of 200 TW have been obtained. This warrants summarizing the present knowledge of physics that governs the behavior of radiating, current-carrying plasma in fast Z pinches. This survey covers essentially all aspects of the physics of fast Z pinches: initiation, instabilities of the early stage, magnetic Rayleigh-Taylor instability in the implosion phase, formation of a transient quasiequilibrium near the stagnation point, and rebound. Considerable attention is paid to the analysis of hydrodynamic instabilities governing the implosion symmetry. Possible ways of mitigating these instabilities are discussed. Nonmagnetohydrodynamic effects (anomalous resistivity, generation of particle beams, etc.) are summarized. Various applications of fast Z pinches are briefly described. Scaling laws governing development of more powerful Z pinches are presented.
Important factors in the application of sensing technology to space applications are low mass, small size, and low power. All of these attributes are enabled by the application of MEMS and micro-fabrication technology to micro-sensors. Two types of sensors are utilized in space applications: remotes sensing from orbit around the earth or another planetary body, and point sensing in the spacecraft or external to it. Several Sandia projects that apply microfabrication technologies to the development of new sensing capabilities having the potential for space applications will be briefly described. The Micro-Navigator is a project to develop a MEMS-based device to measure acceleration and rotation in all three axes for local area navigation. The Polychromator project is a joint project with Honeywell and MIT to develop an electrically programmable diffraction grating that can be programmed to synthesize the spectra of molecules. This grating will be used as the reference cell in a gas correlation radiometer to enable remote chemical detection of most chemical species. Another area of research where micro-fabrication is having a large impact is the development of a "lab on a chip." Sandia's efforts to develop the μChemLab™ will be described including the development of microfabricated pre-concentrators, chromatographic columns, and detectors. Smart sensors that allow the spacecraft independent decision making capabilities depend on pattern recognition. Sandia's development of a new pattern recognition methodology that can be used to interpret sensor response as well as for target recognition applications will be described.
Microsystems involve several fabrication technologies, but share the common trait of dimensions and motions measured in microns. Small feature sizes and deflections make the detection of microdevice motion particularly difficult. The rapid operating frequencies of many microactuators compound the detection problem. Effective feedback, control, and performance measurement of microactuators thus become problematic. These measurements are particularly important, however, due to the developmental nature of many microsystem technologies. Wear, lifetime issues, and optimized drive signals, for example, are poorly understood for many actuation devices. As microactuators move out of the development stage and begin to perform work on external assemblies and environments, the various load conditions will also come into account. Since microactuators involve small masses and inertias, effective driving of external loads may require feedback-based control of the microdevice. Optical sensing technologies offer solutions to these problems of sensor motion, microactuator analysis during the development process, and integrated feedback for microactuators driving external loads. Optical methods also end themselves to the effectively 1D nature of many microsystem motions, limiting the required signal analysis to practical levels that support real-time measurement and control. This paper describes several optical techniques for sensing motion, performance, and feedback data, some of which can integrated with the microsystems themselves. For microactuators, experimental results indicate that real-time performance measurements are particularly revealing for understanding device motion and response. For microsensors, experimental result are also presented for interpreting motion using external and integrated optical techniques.
This paper describes mechanical designed concepts for a class of pivoting micromirrors that permit relatively large angles of orientation to be obtained when configured in large arrays. Micromirror arrays can be utilized in a variety of applications ranging from optical switching to beam-front correction in a variety of technologies. This particular work is concerned with silicon surface micromachining. The multi-layer polysilicon surface micromachined process developed at Sandia National Laboratories is used to fabricate micromirror arrays that consists of capacitive electrode pairs which are used to electrostatically actuator mirrors to their desired positions and suitable elastic suspensions which support the 2 micrometers thick mirror structures. The designs described have been fabricated and successfully operated.
The thermal conductivity of 304 stainless steel has been estimated from transient temperature measurements and knowing the volumetric heat capacity. Sensitivity coefficients were used to guide the design of this experiment as well as to estimate the confidence interval in the estimated thermal conductivity. The uncertainty on the temperature measurements was estimated by several means, and its impact on the estimated conductivity is discussed. The estimated thermal conductivity of 304 stainless steel is consistent with results from other sources.
In the present study, 10 impact tests were conducted on unpoled PZT 95/5, with 9% porosity and 2 at% Nb doping. These tests were instrumented to obtain time-resolved loading, unloading and span signatures. As well, PVDF gauges allowed shock timing to be established explicitly. The ferroelectric/antiferroelectric phases transition was manifested as a ramp to 0.4 GPa. The onset of crushup produced the most visible signature: a clear wave separation at 2.2 GPa followed by a highly dispersive wave. The end states also reflected crushup, and are consistent with earlier data and with related poled experiments. A span strength value of 0.17 GPa was measured for a shock stress of 0.5 GPa, this decreased to a very small value (no visible pullback signature) for a shock strength of 1.85 GPa.
Two programs have been written in C++ to greatly automate the process of computer simulation visualization inmost cases. These programs, rasterize.C and tracker.C, can be used to generate numerous images in order to create a video or still ties. In order to limit the amount of time and work involved in visualizing simulations, both of these programs have their own specific output formats. The first output format, from rasterize.C, is best suited for those who need only to visualize the actions of a single element, or elements that work on roughly the same time scale. The second format, from tracker.C, is best suited for simulations which involve multiple elements that work on different time scales and thus must be represented in a manner other than straight forward visualization.
Designing products for easy assembly and disassembly during their entire life cycles for purposes including product assembly, product upgrade, product servicing and repair, and product disposal is a process that involves many disciplines. In addition, finding the best solution often involves considering the design as a whole and by considering its intended life cycle. Different goals and manufacturing plan selection criteria, as compared to initial assembly, require re-visiting significant fundamental assumptions and methods that underlie current assembly planning techniques. Previous work in this area has been limited to either academic studies of issues in assembly planning or to applied studies of life cycle assembly processes that give no attention to automatic planning. It is believed that merging these two areas will result in a much greater ability to design for, optimize, and analyze the cycle assembly processes. The study of assembly planning is at the very heart of manufacturing research facilities and academic engineering institutions; and, in recent years a number of significant advances in the field of assembly planning have been made. These advances have ranged from the development of automated assembly planning systems, such as Sandia's Automated Assembly Analysis System Archimedes 3.0{copyright}, to the startling revolution in microprocessors and computer-controlled production tools such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), flexible manufacturing systems (EMS), and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). These results have kindled considerable interest in the study of algorithms for life cycle related assembly processes and have blossomed into a field of intense interest. The intent of this manuscript is to bring together the fundamental results in this area, so that the unifying principles and underlying concepts of algorithm design may more easily be implemented in practice.
Automatic assembly sequencing and visualization tools are valuable in determining the best assembly sequences, but without Human Factors and Figure Models (HFFMs) it is difficult to evaluate or visualize human interaction. In industry, accelerating technological advances and shorter market windows have forced companies to turn to an agile manufacturing paradigm. This trend has promoted computerized automation of product design and manufacturing processes, such as automated assembly planning. However, all automated assembly planning software tools assume that the individual components fly into their assembled configuration and generate what appear to be a perfectly valid operations, but in reality the operations cannot physically be carried out by a human. Similarly, human figure modeling algorithms may indicate that assembly operations are not feasible and consequently force design modifications; however, if they had the capability to quickly generate alternative assembly sequences, they might have identified a feasible solution. To solve this problem HFFMs must be integrated with automated assembly planning to allow engineers to verify that assembly operations are possible and to see ways to make the designs even better. Factories will very likely put humans and robots together in cooperative environments to meet the demands for customized products, for purposes including robotic and automated assembly. For robots to work harmoniously within an integrated environment with humans the robots must have cooperative operational skills. For example, in a human only environment, humans may tolerate collisions with one another if they did not cause much pain. This level of tolerance may or may not apply to robot-human environments. Humans expect that robots will be able to operate and navigate in their environments without collisions or interference. The ability to accomplish this is linked to the sensing capabilities available. Current work in the field of cooperative automation has shown the effectiveness of humans and machines directly interacting to perform tasks. To continue to advance this area of robotics, effective means need to be developed to allow natural ways for people to communicate and cooperate with robots just as they do with one another.
Experiments have been performed using a coaxial end-effector to combine a focused laser beam and a plasma arc. The device employs a hollow tungsten electrode, a focusing lens, and conventional plasma arc torch nozzles to co-locate the focused beam and arc on the workpiece. Plasma arc nozzles were selected to protect the electrode from laser generated metal vapor. The project goal is to develop an improved fusion welding process that exhibits both absorption robustness and deep penetration for small scale (<1.5 mm thickness) applications. On aluminum alloys 6061 and 6111, the hybrid process has been shown to eliminate hot cracking in the fusion zone. Fusion zone dimensions for both stainless steel and aluminum were found to be wider than characteristic laser welds, and deeper than characteristic plasma arc welds.
Due to extreme surface to volume ratios, adhesion and friction are critical properties for reliability of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), but are not well understood. In this LDRD the authors established test structures, metrology and numerical modeling to conduct studies on adhesion and friction in MEMS. They then concentrated on measuring the effect of environment on MEMS adhesion. Polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) is the primary material of interest in MEMS because of its integrated circuit process compatibility, low stress, high strength and conformal deposition nature. A plethora of useful micromachined device concepts have been demonstrated using Sandia National Laboratories' sophisticated in-house capabilities. One drawback to polysilicon is that in air the surface oxidizes, is high energy and is hydrophilic (i.e., it wets easily). This can lead to catastrophic failure because surface forces can cause MEMS parts that are brought into contact to adhere rather than perform their intended function. A fundamental concern is how environmental constituents such as water will affect adhesion energies in MEMS. The authors first demonstrated an accurate method to measure adhesion as reported in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2 through 5, they then studied the effect of water on adhesion depending on the surface condition (hydrophilic or hydrophobic). As described in Chapter 2, they find that adhesion energy of hydrophilic MEMS surfaces is high and increases exponentially with relative humidity (RH). Surface roughness is the controlling mechanism for this relationship. Adhesion can be reduced by several orders of magnitude by silane coupling agents applied via solution processing. They decrease the surface energy and render the surface hydrophobic (i.e. does not wet easily). However, only a molecular monolayer coats the surface. In Chapters 3-5 the authors map out the extent to which the monolayer reduces adhesion versus RH. They find that adhesion is independent of RH up to a threshold value, depending on the coating chemistry. The mechanism for the adhesion increase beyond this threshold value is that the coupling agent reconfigures from a surface to a bulk phase (Chapter 3). To investigate the details of how the adhesion increase occurs, the authors developed the mechanics for adhesion hysteresis measurements. These revealed that near-crack tip compression is the underlying cause of the adhesion increase (Chapter 4). A vacuum deposition chamber for silane coupling agent deposition was constructed. Results indicate that vapor deposited coatings are less susceptible to degradation at high RH (Chapter 5). To address issues relating to surfaces in relative motion, a new test structure to measure friction was developed. In contrast to other surface micromachined friction test structures, uniform apparent pressure is applied in the frictional contact zone (Chapter 6). The test structure will enable friction studies over a large pressure and dynamic range. In this LDRD project, the authors established an infrastructure for MEMS adhesion and friction metrology. They then characterized in detail the performance of hydrophilic and hydrophobic films under humid conditions, and determined mechanisms which limit this performance. These studies contribute to a fundamental understanding for MEMS reliability design rules. They also provide valuable data for MEMS packaging requirements.
Conventional methods of gathering forensic evidence at crime scenes are encumbered by difficulties that limit local law enforcement efforts to apprehend offenders and bring them to justice. Working with a local law-enforcement agency, Sandia National Laboratories has developed a prototype multispectral imaging system that can speed up the investigative search task and provide additional and more accurate evidence. The system, called the Criminalistics Light-imaging Unit (CLU), has demonstrated the capabilities of locating fluorescing evidence at crime scenes under normal lighting conditions and of imaging other types of evidence, such as untreated fingerprints, by direct white-light reflectance. CLU employs state of the art technology that provides for viewing and recording of the entire search process on videotape. This report describes the work performed by Sandia to design, build, evaluate, and commercialize CLU.
Z pinches, the oldest fusion concept, have recently been revisited in light of significant advances in the fields of plasma physics and pulsed power engineering. The possibility exists for z-pinch fusion to play a role in commercial energy applications. We report on work to develop z-pinch fusion concepts, the result of an extensive literature search, and the output for a congressionally-mandated workshop on fusion energy held in Snowmass, Co July 11-23,1999.
This paper compares the cost and effectiveness of several potential options that may be used to monitor silo-based ballistic missiles. Silo door monitoring can be used to verify that warheads removed to deactivate or download silo-based ballistic missiles have not been replaced. A precedent for monitoring warhead replacement using reentry vehicle on site inspections (RV-OSIs) and using satellites has been established by START-I and START-II. However, other monitoring options have the potential to be less expensive and more effective. Three options are the most promising if high verification confidence is desired: random monitoring using door sensors; random monitoring using manned or unmanned aircraft; and continuous remote monitoring using unattended door sensors.
The detailed understanding of the formation and evolution of plasma from rapidly heated metallic wires is a long-standing challenge in the field of plasma physics and in exploding wire engineering. This physical process is made even more complicated if the wire material is composed of a number of individual layers. The authors have successfully developed both optical and x-ray backlighting diagnostics. In particular, the x-ray backlighting technique has demonstrated the capability for quantitative determination of the plasma density over a wide range of densities. This diagnostic capability shows that the process of plasma formation is composed of two separate phases: first, current is passed through a cold wire and the wire is heated ohmically, and, second, the heated wire evolves gases that break down and forms a low-density plasma surrounding the wire.
Production of the molybdenum-99 isotope at the Annular Core Research Reactor requires highly enriched, uranium oxide loaded targets to be irradiated for several days in the high neutron-flux region of the core. This report presents the safety analysis for the irradiation of up to seven Cintichem-type targets in the central region of the core and compares the results to the Annular Core Research Reactor Safety Analysis Report. A 19 target grid configuration is presented that allows one to seven targets to be irradiated, with the remainder of the grid locations filled with aluminum ''void'' targets. Analyses of reactor, neutronic, thermal hydraulics, and heat transfer calculations are presented. Steady-state operation and accident scenarios are analyzed with the conclusion that the reactor can be operated safely with seven targets in the grid, and no additional risk to the public.
The bio-terrorism threat has become the ''poor man's'' nuclear weapon. The ease of manufacture and dissemination has allowed an organization with only rudimentary skills and equipment to pose a significant threat with high consequences. This report will analyze some of the most likely agents that would be used, the ease of manufacture, the ease of dissemination and what characteristics of the public health response that are particularly important to the successful characterization of a high consequence event to prevent excessive causalities.
Two new failure analysis techniques have been developed for backside and front side localization of open and shorted interconnections on ICs. These scanning optical microscopy techniques take advantage of the interactions between IC defects and localized heating using a focused infrared laser ({lambda} = 1,340 nm). Images are produced by monitoring the voltage changes across a constant current supply used to power the IC as the laser beam is scanned across the sample. The methods utilize the Seebeck Effect to localize open interconnections and Thermally-Induced Voltage Alteration (TIVA) to detect shorts. Initial investigations demonstrated the feasibility of TIVA and Seebeck Effect Imaging (SEI). Subsequent improvements have greatly increased the sensitivity of the TIVA/SEI system, reducing the acquisition times by more than 20X and localizing previously unobserved defects. The interaction physics describing the signal generation process and several examples demonstrating the localization of opens and shorts are described. Operational guidelines and limitations are also discussed. The system improvements, non-linear response of IC defects to heating, modeling of laser heating and examples using the improved system for failure analysis are presented.
This report focuses on the relationship between the fundamental interactions acting across an interface and macroscopic engineering observable such as fracture toughness or fracture stress. The work encompasses experiment, theory, and simulation. The model experimental system is epoxy on polished silicon. The interfacial interactions between the substrate and the adhesive are varied continuously using self-assembling monolayer. Fracture is studied in two specimen geometries: a napkin-ring torsion geometry and a double cantilevered beam specimen. Analysis and modeling involves molecular dynamics simulations and continuum mechanics calculations. Further insight is gained from analysis of measurements in the literature of direct force measurements for various fundamental interactions. In the napkin-ring test, the data indicate a nonlinear relationship between interface strength and fracture stress. In particular, there is an abrupt transition in fracture stress which corresponds to an adhesive-to-cohesive transition. Such nonlinearity is not present in the MD simulations on the tens-of-nanometer scale, which suggests that the nonlinearity comes from bulk material deformation occurring on much larger length scales. We postulate that the transition occurs when the interface strength becomes comparable to the yield stress of the material. This postulate is supported by variation observed in the fracture stress curve with test temperature. Detailed modeling of the stress within the sample has not yet been attempted. In the DCB test, the relationship between interface strength and fracture toughness is also nonlinear, but the fracture mechanisms are quite different. The fracture does not transition from adhesive to cohesive, but remains adhesive over the entire range of interface strength. This specimen is modeled quantitatively by combining (i) continuum calculations relating fracture toughness to the stress at 90 {angstrom} from the crack tip, and (ii) a relationship from molecular simulations between fracture stress on a {approx} 90 {angstrom} scale and the fraction of surface sites which chemically bond. The resulting relationship between G{sub c} and fraction of bonding sites is then compared to the experimental data. This first order model captures the nonlinearity in the experimentally-determined relationship. A much more extensive comparison is needed (calculations extending to higher G{sub c} values, experimental data extending to lower G{sub c} values) to guide further model development.
Three reactive materials were evaluated at laboratory scale to identify the optimum treatment reagent for use in a Permeable Reactive Barrier Treatment System at Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (RFETS). The contaminants of concern (COCS) are uranium, TCE, PCE, carbon tetrachloride, americium, and vinyl chloride. The three reactive media evaluated included high carbon steel iron filings, an iron-silica alloy in the form of a foam aggregate, and a peculiar humic acid based sorbent (Humasorb from Arctech) mixed with sand. Each material was tested in the laboratory at column scale using simulated site water. All three materials showed promise for the 903 Mound Site however, the iron filings were determined to be the least expensive media. In order to validate the laboratory results, the iron filings were further tested at a pilot scale (field columns) using actual site water. Pilot test results were similar to laboratory results; consequently, the iron filings were chosen for the fill-scale demonstration of the reactive barrier technology. Additional design parameters including saturated hydraulic conductivity, treatment residence time, and head loss across the media were also determined and provided to the design team in support of the final design. The final design was completed by the Corps of Engineers in 1997 and the system was constructed in the summer of 1998. The treatment system began fill operation in December, 1998 and despite a few problems has been operational since. Results to date are consistent with the lab and pilot scale findings, i.e., complete removal of the contaminants of concern (COCs) prior to discharge to meet RFETS cleanup requirements. Furthermore, it is fair to say at this point in time that laboratory developed design parameters for the reactive barrier technology are sufficient for fuel scale design; however,the treatment system longevity and the long-term fate of the contaminants are questions that remain unanswered. This project along with others such as the Durango, CO and Monticello, UT reactive barriers will provide the data to determine the long-term effectiveness and return on investment (ROI) for this technology for comparison to the baseline pump and treat.
The burgeoning new technology of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) shows great promise in the weapons arena. We can now conceive of micro-gyros, micro-surety systems, and micro-navigators that are extremely small and inexpensive. Do we want to use this new technology in critical applications such as nuclear weapons? This question drove us to understand the reliability and failure mechanisms of silicon surface-micromachined MEMS. Development of a testing infrastructure was a crucial step to perform reliability experiments on MEMS devices and will be reported here. In addition, reliability test structures have been designed and characterized. Many experiments were performed to investigate failure modes and specifically those in different environments (humidity, temperature, shock, vibration, and storage). A predictive reliability model for wear of rubbing surfaces in microengines was developed. The root causes of failure for operating and non-operating MEMS are discussed. The major failure mechanism for operating MEMS was wear of the polysilicon rubbing surfaces. Reliability design rules for future MEMS devices are established.
The authors have developed diode lasers for short pulse duration and high peak pulse power in the 0.01--100.0 m pulsewidth regime. A primary goal of the program was producing up to 10 W while maintaining good far-field beam quality and ease of manufacturability for low cost. High peak power, 17 W, picosecond pulses have been achieved by gain switching of flared geometry waveguide lasers and amplifiers. Such high powers area world record for this type of diode laser. The light emission pattern from diode lasers is of critical importance for sensing systems such as range finding and chemical detection. They have developed a new integrated optical beam transformer producing rib-waveguide diode lasers with a symmetric, low divergence, output beam and increased upper power limits for irreversible facet damage.
A variety of organic and hybrid organic-inorganic polymer systems were prepared and evaluated for their bulk response to optical, thermal and chemical environmental changes. These included modeling studies of polyene-bridged metal porphyrin systems, metal-mediated oligomerization of phosphaalkynes as heteroatomic analogues to polyacetylene monomers, investigations of chemically amplified degradation of acid- and base-sensitive polymers and thermally responsive thermoplastic thermosets based on Diels-Alder cycloaddition chemistry. The latter class of materials was utilized to initiate work to develop a new technique for rapidly building a library of systems with varying depolymerization temperatures.
The LDRD entitled ``Role of Defects in III-Nitride Based Devices'' is aimed to place Sandia National Laboratory at the forefront of the field of GaN materials and devices by establishing a scientific foundation in areas such as material growth, defect characterization/modeling, and processing (metalization and etching) chemistry. In this SAND report the authors summarize their studies such as (1) the MOCVD growth and doping of GaN and AlGaN, (2) the characterization and modeling of hydrogen in GaN, including its bonding, diffusion, and activation behaviors, (3) the calculation of energetic of various defects including planar stacking faults, threading dislocations, and point defects in GaN, and (4) dry etching (plasma etching) of GaN (n- and p-types) and AlGaN. The result of the first AlGaN/GaN heterojunction bipolar transistor is also presented.
QUICKSILVER is a 3-d electromagnetic particle-in-cell simulation code developed and used at Sandia to model relativistic charged particle transport. It models the time-response of electromagnetic fields and low-density-plasmas in a self-consistent manner: the fields push the plasma particles and the plasma current modifies the fields. Through an LDRD project a new parallel version of QUICKSILVER was created to enable large-scale plasma simulations to be run on massively-parallel distributed-memory supercomputers with thousands of processors, such as the Intel Tflops and DEC CPlant machines at Sandia. The new parallel code implements nearly all the features of the original serial QUICKSILVER and can be run on any platform which supports the message-passing interface (MPI) standard as well as on single-processor workstations. This report describes basic strategies useful for parallelizing and load-balancing particle-in-cell codes, outlines the parallel algorithms used in this implementation, and provides a summary of the modifications made to QUICKSILVER. It also highlights a series of benchmark simulations which have been run with the new code that illustrate its performance and parallel efficiency. These calculations have up to a billion grid cells and particles and were run on thousands of processors. This report also serves as a user manual for people wishing to run parallel QUICKSILVER.
A phenomenological model was developed for multicomponent transport of charged species with simultaneous electrochemical reactions in concentrated solutions, and was applied to model processes in a thermal battery cell. A new general framework was formulated and implemented in GOMA (a multidimensional, multiphysics, finite-element computer code developed and being enhanced at Sandia) for modeling multidimensional, multicomponent transport of neutral and charged species in concentrated solutions. The new framework utilizes the Stefan-Maxwell equations that describe multicomponent diffusion of interacting species using composition-insensitive binary diffusion coefficients. The new GOMA capability for modeling multicomponent transport of neutral species was verified and validated using the model problem of ternary gaseous diffusion in a Stefan tube. The new GOMA-based thermal battery computer model was verified using an idealized battery cell in which concentration gradients are absent; the full model was verified by comparing with that of Bernardi and Newman (1987) and validated using limited thermal battery discharge-performance data from the open literature (Dunning 1981) and from Sandia (Guidotti 1996). Moreover, a new Liquid Chemkin Software Package was developed, which allows the user to handle manly aspects of liquid-phase kinetics, thermodynamics, and transport (particularly in terms of computing properties). Lastly, a Lattice-Boltzmann-based capability was developed for modeling pore- or micro-scale phenomena involving convection, diffusion, and simplified chemistry; this capability was demonstrated by modeling phenomena in the cathode region of a thermal battery cell.
This project represented a coordinated LLNL-SNL collaboration to investigate the feasibility of developing radiation-hardened magnetic non-volatile memories using giant magnetoresistance (GMR) materials. The intent of this limited-duration study was to investigate whether giant magnetoresistance (GMR) materials similar to those used for magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) were process compatible with functioning CMOS circuits. Sandia's work on this project demonstrated that deposition of GMR materials did not affect the operation nor the radiation hardness of Sandia's rad-hard CMOS technology, nor did the integration of GMR materials and exposure to ionizing radiation affect the magnetic properties of the GMR films. Thus, following deposition of GMR films on rad-hard integrated circuits, both the circuits and the films survived ionizing radiation levels consistent with DOE mission requirements. Furthermore, Sandia developed techniques to pattern deposited GMR films without degrading the completed integrated circuits upon which they were deposited. The present feasibility study demonstrated all the necessary processing elements to allow fabrication of the non-volatile memory elements onto an existing CMOS chip, and even allow the use of embedded (on-chip) non-volatile memories for system-on-a-chip applications, even in demanding radiation environments. However, funding agencies DTRA, AIM, and DARPA did not have any funds available to support the required follow-on technology development projects that would have been required to develop functioning prototype circuits, nor were such funds available from LDRD nor from other DOE program funds.
Nuclear power is an important and, the authors believe, essential component of a secure nuclear future. Although nuclear fuel cycles create materials that have some potential for use in nuclear weapons, with appropriate fuel cycles, nuclear power could reduce rather than increase real proliferation risk worldwide. Future fuel cycles could be designed to avoid plutonium production, generate minimal amounts of plutonium in proliferation-resistant amounts or configurations, and/or transparently and efficiently consume plutonium already created. Furthermore, a strong and viable US nuclear infrastructure, of which nuclear power is a large element, is essential if the US is to maintain a leadership or even participatory role in defining the global nuclear infrastructure and controlling the proliferation of nuclear weapons. By focusing on new fuel cycles and new reactor technologies, it is possible to advantageously burn and reduce nuclear materials that could be used for nuclear weapons rather than increase and/or dispose of these materials. Thus, the authors suggest that planners for a secure nuclear future use technology to design an ideal future. In this future, nuclear power creates large amounts of virtually atmospherically clean energy while significantly lowering the threat of proliferation through the thoughtful use, physical security, and agreed-upon transparency of nuclear materials. The authors must develop options for policy makers that bring them as close as practical to this ideal. Just as Atoms for Peace became the ideal for the first nuclear century, they see a potential nuclear future that contributes significantly to power for peace and prosperity.
A measurement system's components: cabling, delay line, waveform recorder, etc., degrade acquired signals and their respective bandlimited frequency responses. Compensation software corrects for this frequency-dependent spectral degradation by deconvolving the transfer function of the entire measurement system out of the measured signal spectra. This report describes methods to transfer the characteristics of a wide bandwidth repetitive sampling oscilloscope to a single-shot transient digitizer, characterize the measurement system, develop a cascaded transition-band filter, and compensate data acquired with the filtered, characterized measurement system. These procedures are easily implemented, execute quickly, and successfully compensate waveforms possessing endpoint discontinuities. Waveforms possessing endpoint discontinuities are made to appear duration-limited and continuous. The spectra for these modified waveforms are correct, including at dc. The deconvolution process introduces unavoidable noise. Filtering is applied to reduce the deconvolution noise while minimally affecting compensated waveform risetime and amplitude. Resultant compensated data retains its initial dc baseline offset with improved waveform fidelity and low noise of deconvolution.
Thermal oxide and PETEOS oxide surfaces, polished on an IPEC 472 with different combinations of polish pad, slurry, and polishing conditions, were studied with ex situ atomic force microscopy. The post polish surfaces were analyzed qualitatively by visual inspection and quantitatively by spectral and scaling analyses. Spectral and scaling analyses gave consistent interpretations of morphology evolution. Polishing with either a fixed abrasive pad or alumina-based slurry occurred via a mechanism for which asperities are removed and recesses are filled. A sputtering-type mechanism may contribute to material removal when polishing with silica- or ceria-based slurries.
Conventional electroactive stack components in thermal batteries are constructed from pressed-powder parts. These include the anode, separator, and cathode pellets (discs). Pressing parts that are less than 0.010 inch thick is difficult. The use of plasma spray to deposit thin CoS{sub 2} cathode films onto a stainless steel substrate was examined as an alternative to pressed-powder cathodes. The plasma-sprayed electrodes were tested in single cells under isothermal conditions and constant-current discharge over a temperature range of 400 C to 550 C using standard LiSi anodes and separators based on the LiCl-KCl eutectic. Similar tests were conducted with cells built with conventional pressed-powder cathodes, which were tested under the same conditions for comparative purposes. This paper presents the results of those tests.
A Total System Performance Assessment (TSPA) of Yucca Mountain consists of integrated sub-models and analyses of natural and engineered systems. Examples of subsystem models include unsaturated-zone flow and transport, seepage into drifts, coupled thermal hydrologic processes, transport through the engineered barrier system, and saturated-zone flow and transport. The TSPA evaluates the interaction of important processes among these subsystems, and it determines the impact of these processes on the overall performance measures (e.g., dose rate to humans). This paper summarizes the evaluation, abstraction, and combination of these subsystem models in a TSPA calculation, and it provides background on the individual TSPA subsystem components that are most directly impacted by geotechnical issues. The potential impact that geologic features, events, and processes have on the overall performance is presented, and an evaluation of the sensitivity of TSPA calculations to these issues is also provided.
Monte Carlo simulations of phosphate tetrahedron connectivity distributions in alkali and alkaline earth phosphate glasses are reported. By utilizing a discrete bond model, the distribution of next-nearest neighbor connectivities between phosphate polyhedron for random, alternating and clustering bonding scenarios was evaluated as a function of the relative bond energy difference. The simulated distributions are compared to experimentally observed connectivities reported for solid-state two-dimensional exchange and double-quantum NMR experiments of phosphate glasses. These Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate that the polyhedron connectivity is best described by a random distribution in lithium phosphate and calcium phosphate glasses.
A substantial decrease in hydrostatic ferroelectric (FE) to antiferroelectric (AFE) transformation pressure was measured for Pb(Zr{sub 0.949}Ti{sub 0.051}){sub 0.989}Nb{sub 0.0182}O{sub 3} ceramics with decreasing grain size. The 150 MPa decrease in hydrostatic FE to AFE transformation pressure over the grain size range of 8.5 {micro}m to 0.7{micro}m was shown to be consistent with enhanced internal stress with decreasing grain size. Further, the Curie Point decreased and the dielectric constant measured at 25 C increased with decreasing grain size. All three properties: dielectric constant magnitude, Curie point shift and FE to AFE phase transformation pressure were shown to be semi-quantitatively consistent with internal stress differences on the order of 100 MPa. Calculations of Curie point shifts from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, using internal stress levels derived from the hydrostatic depoling characteristics, were consistent with measured values.
The longevity of high gain GaAs photoconductive semiconductor switches (PCSS) has been extended to over 100 million pulses. This was achieved by improving the ohmic contacts through the incorporation of a doped layer that is very effective in the suppression of filament formation, alleviating current crowding. Damage-free operation is now possible with virtually infinite expected lifetime at much higher current levels than before. The inherent damage-free current capacity of the bulk GaAs itself depends on the thickness of the doped layers and is at least 100A for a dopant diffusion depth of 4pm. The contact metal has a different damage mechanism and the threshold for damage ({approx}40A) is not further improved beyond a dopant diffusion depth of about 2{micro}m. In a diffusion-doped contact switch, the switching performance is not degraded when contact metal erosion occurs, unlike a switch with conventional contacts. This paper will compare thermal diffusion and epitaxial growth as approaches to doping the contacts. These techniques will be contrasted in terms of the fabrication issues and device characteristics.
Microstructural evolution due to aging of solder alloys determines their long-term reliability as electrical, mechanical and thermal interconnects in electronics packages. The ability to accurately determine the reliability of existing electronic components as well as to predict the performance of proposed designs depends upon the development of reliable material models. A kinetic Monte Carlo simulation was used to simulate microstructural evolution in solder-class materials. The grain growth model simulated many of the microstructural features observed experimentally in 63Sn-37Pb, a popular near-eutectic solder alloy. The model was validated by comparing simulation results to new experimental data on coarsening of Sn-Pb solder. The computational and experimental grain growth exponent for two-phase solder was found to be much lower than that for normal, single phase grain growth. The grain size distributions of solders obtained from simulations were narrower than that of normal grain growth. It was found that the phase composition of solder is important in determining grain growth behavior.
The stress-relief cracking susceptibility of single-pass welds in a new ferritic steel, HCM2S, has been evaluated and compared to 2.25Cr-1Mo steel using Gleeble techniques. Simulated coarse-grained heat-affected zones (CGHAZ) were produced under a range of energy inputs and tested at various post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) temperatures. Both alloys were tested at a stress of 325 MPa. The 2.25 Cr-1Mo steel was also tested at 270 MPa to normalize for the difference in yield strength between the two materials. Light optical and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the CGHAZ microstructure. The ''as-welded'' CGHAZ of each alloy consisted of lath martensite or bainite and had approximately equal prior austenite grain sizes. The as-welded hardness of the 2.25Cr-1Mo steel CGHAZ was significantly higher than that of the HCM2S alloy. Over the range studied energy input had no effect on the as-welded microstructure or hardness of either alloy. The energy input also had no effect on the stress-relief cracking susceptibility of either material. Both alloys failed intergranularly along prior austenite grain boundaries under all test conditions. The 2.25Cr-1Mo steel samples experienced significant macroductility and some microductility when tested at 325 MPa. The ductility decreased significantly when tested at 270 MPa but was still higher that than of HCM2S at each test condition. The time to failure decreased with increasing PWHT Temperature for each material. There was no significant difference in the times to failure between the two materials. Varying energy input and stress had no effect on the time-to failure. The ductility, as measured by reduction in are% increased with increasing PWHT temperature for 2.25 Cr-1Mo steel tested at both stresses. However, PWHT temperature had no effect on the ductility of HCM2S. The hardness of the CGHAZ for 2.25Cr-1Mo steel decreased significantly after PWHT, but remained constant for HCM2S. The differences in stress-relief cracking response are discussed in terms of the differences in composition and expected carbide precipitation sequence for each alloy during PWHT.
A new two-dimensional photonic crystal (2D PC) slab structure was created with a full three-dimensional light confinement. Guided modes with broad bandwidth and high transmission within the band gap are also observed. As an optical analog to electronic crystals, PC promises a revolution in the photonic world similar to the electronic revolution created by the electronic band gap engineering in semiconductor. 2D PC has an advantage of being easier to fabricate at optical wavelength ({lambda}) comparing with 3D PC. However, the light leakage in the vertical direction has been the main problem for using 2D PC in opto-electronic application. In this study, the authors solve this problem by combining traditional 2D PC with strong vertical index guiding between the waveguide layer (GaAs) and the cladding layer (Al{sub x}O{sub y}). A set of triangular lattice holes 2D PC's were fabricated with lattice constant a=460nm, hole diameter (d=0.6a) and waveguide layer thickness (t = 0.5a). Those parameters were chosen to maximize the TE photonic band gap (PBG) around {lambda} = 1.55{micro}m. The depth of etched holes is {approximately}0.6{micro}m and the 2{micro}m thick Al{sub x}O{sub y} cladding layer is obtained by thermal oxidation of Al{sub 0.9}Ga{sub 0.1}As. PC waveguides were also created by introducing line defects along {Gamma}K direction. The authors perform transmission measurement by coupling light to PC with 3{micro}m wide waveguides which extends {approximately}0.6mm on both sides of PC. An aspheric lens with NA = 0.4 is used to focus the collimated light from tunable diode laser into the input waveguide. Another identical lens is used to collect the transmitted light and focus to an infrared (IR) camera and a calibrated photo-detector with a beamsplitter. The Gaussian waveguide mode indicates that the signal detected by the photodetector comes only from the light interacting with PC and propagating along the waveguide. The absolute transmittance is obtained by normalizing the transmission with a reference measured with a nominally identical waveguide without PC.
Solute redistribution and microstructural evolution have been modeled for gas tungsten arc fusion welds in experimental Ni base superalloys. The multi-component alloys were modeled as a pseudo-ternary {gamma}-Nb-C system. The variation in fraction liquid and liquid composition during the primary L {r{underscore}arrow} {gamma} and eutectic type L {r{underscore}arrow} ({gamma} + NbC) stages of solidification were calculated for conditions of negligible Nb diffusion and infinitely rapid C diffusion in the solid phase. Input parameters were estimated by using the Thermo-Calc NiFe Alloy data base and compared to experimentally determined solidification parameters. The solidification model results provide useful information for qualitatively interpreting the influence of alloy composition on weld microstructure. The quantitative comparisons indicate that, for the alloy system evaluated, the thermodynamic database provides sufficiently accurate values for the distribution coefficients of Nb and C. The calculated position of the {gamma}-NbC two-fold saturation line produces inaccurate results when used as inputs for the model, indicating further refinement to the database is needed for quantitative estimates.
Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) designs mechanical systems with components that must survive high frequency shock environments including pyrotechnic shock. These environments have not been simulated very well in the past at the payload system level because of weight limitations of traditional pyroshock mechanical simulations using resonant beams and plates. A new concept utilizing tuned resonators attached to the payload system and driven with the impact of an airgun projectile allow these simulations to be performed in the laboratory with high precision and repeatability without the use of explosives. A tuned resonator has been designed and constructed for a particular payload system. Comparison of laboratory responses with measurements made at the component locations during actual pyrotechnic events show excellent agreement for a bandwidth of DC to 4 kHz. The bases of comparison are shock spectra. This simple concept applies the mechanical pyroshock simulation simultaneously to all components with the correct boundary conditions in the payload system and is a considerable improvement over previous experimental techniques and simulations.
Recent improvements in z-pinch wire array load design at Sandia National Laboratories have led to a substantial increase in pinch performance as measured by radiated powers of up to 280 TW in 4 ns and 1.8 MJ of total radiated energy. Next generation, higher current machines will allow for larger mass arrays and comparable or higher velocity implosions to be reached, possibly extending these result.dis the current is pushed above 20 MA, conventional machine design based on a 100 ns implosion time results in higher voltages, hence higher cost and power flow risk. Another approach, which shifts the risk to the load configuration, is to increase the implosion time to minimize the voltage. This approach is being investigated in a series of experimental campaigns on the Saturn and Z machines. In this paper, both experimental and two dimensional computational modeling of the fist long implosion Z experiments will be presented. The experimental data shows broader pulses, lower powers, and larger pinch diameters compared to the corresponding short pulse data. By employing a nested array configuration, the pinch diameter was reduced by 50% with a corresponding increase in power of > 30%. Numerical simulations suggest load velocity is the dominating mechanism behind these results.
Microstructure-level residual stresses arise in polycrystalline ceramics during processing as a result of thermal expansion anisotropy and crystallographic disorientation across the grain boundaries. Depending upon the grain size, the magnitude of these stresses can be sufficiently high to cause spontaneous microcracking during the processing of these materials. They are also likely to affect where cracks initiate and propagate under macroscopic loading. The magnitudes of residual stresses in untextured and textured alumina samples were predicted using object oriented finite (OOF) element analysis and experimentally determined grain orientations. The crystallographic orientations were obtained by electron-backscattered diffraction (EBSD). The residual stresses were lower and the stress distributions were narrower in the textured samples compared to those in the untextured samples. Crack initiation and propagation were also simulated using the Griffith fracture criterion. The grain boundary to surface energy ratios required for computations were estimated using AFM groove measurements.
Selectively oxidized vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELS) have been studied by spectrally resolved near field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM). We have obtained spatially and spectrally resolved images of both subthreshold emission and lasing emission from a selectively oxidized VCSEL operating at a wavelength of 850 nm. Below threshold, highly local high gain regions, emitting local intensity maxima within the active area, were observed; these were found to serve as lasing centers just above threshold. Above threshold, the near field spatial modal distributions of low order transverse modes were identified by spectrally analyzing the emission; these were found to be complex and significantly different from those measured in the far field.
Finite difference methods for solving the wave equation more accurately capture the physics of waves propagating through the earth than asymptotic solution methods. Unfortunately. finite difference simulations for 3D elastic wave propagation are expensive. We model waves in a 3D isotropic elastic earth. The wave equation solution consists of three velocity components and six stresses. The partial derivatives are discretized using 2nd-order in time and 4th-order in space staggered finite difference operators. Staggered schemes allow one to obtain additional accuracy (via centered finite differences) without requiring additional storage. The serial code is most unique in its ability to model a number of different types of seismic sources. The parallel implementation uses the MP1 library, thus allowing for portability between platforms. Spatial parallelism provides a highly efficient strategy for parallelizing finite difference simulations. In this implementation, one can decompose the global problem domain into one-, two-, and three-dimensional processor decompositions with 3D decompositions generally producing the best parallel speed up. Because i/o is handled largely outside of the time-step loop (the most expensive part of the simulation) we have opted for straight-forward broadcast and reduce operations to handle i/o. The majority of the communication in the code consists of passing subdomain face information to neighboring processors for use as ''ghost cells''. When this communication is balanced against computation by allocating subdomains of reasonable size, we observe excellent scaled speed up. Allocating subdomains of size 25 x 25 x 25 on each node, we achieve efficiencies of 94% on 128 processors. Numerical examples for both a layered earth model and a homogeneous medium with a high-velocity blocky inclusion illustrate the accuracy of the parallel code.
Evaporation is a classical physics problem which, because of its significant importance for many engineering applications, has drawn considerable attention by previous researchers. Classical theoretical models [Ta. I. Frenkel, Kinetic Theory of Liquids, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1946] represent evaporation in a simplistic way as the escape of atoms with highest velocities from a potential well with the depth determined by the atomic binding energy. The processes taking place in the gas phase above the rapidly evaporating surface have also been studied in great detail [S.I.Anisimov and V. A. Khokhlov, Instabilities in Lasser-Matter Interaction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1995]. The description of evaporation utilizing these models is known to adequately characterize drilling with high beam intensity, e.g., >10{sup 7} W/cm{sup 2}. However, the interaction regimes when beam intensity is relatively low, such as during welding or cutting, lack both theoretical and experimental consideration of the evaporation. It was shown recently that if the evaporation is treated in accordance with Anisimov et.al.'s approach, then predicted evaporation recoil should be a substantial factor influencing melt flow and related heat transfer during laser beam welding and cutting. To verify the applicability of this model for low beam intensity interaction, the authors compared the results of measurements and calculations of recoil pressure generated during laser beam irradiation of a target. The target material used was water ice at {minus}10 C. The displacement of a target supported in a nearly frictionless air bearing under irradiation by a defocused laser beam from a 14 kW CO{sub 2} laser was recorded and Newton's laws of motion used to derive the recoil pressure.
Silicon (Si) has a strength to density ratio of 3.0({sigma}{sub y}/{delta}=(6.8GPa/2.3g/cc)), an order-of-magnitude higher than titanium, aluminum, or stainless steel. Silicon also demonstrates favorable thermal, optical, and electrical properties making it ideal for use as a structural foundation for autonomous, mesoscopic systems such as nanosatellites. Using Si substrates, a structure that can simultaneously act as a thermal management system, a radiation shield, an optical material, a package, and a semiconductor substrate can be realized.
To date most validation techniques are highly biased towards calculations involving symbolic representations of problems. These calculations are either formal (in the case of consistency and completeness checks), or informal in the case of code inspections. The authors believe that an essential type of evidence of the correctness of the formalization process must be provided by (i.e., must originate from) human-based calculation. They further believe that human calculation can by significantly amplified by shifting from symbolic representations to graphical representations. This paper describes their preliminary efforts in realizing such a representational shift.
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how transformation can be used to derive a high integrity implementation of a train controller from an algorithmic specification. The paper begins with a general discussion of high consequence systems (e.g., software systems) and describes how rewrite-based transformation systems can be used in the development of such systems. The authors then discuss how such transformations can be used to derive a high assurance controller for the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system from an algorithmic specification.
A key step in the construction of high consequence software is its specification in a formal framework. In order to minimize the difficulty and potential for error, a specification should be expressed in a domain language supporting operators and structures that are intrinsic to the class of algorithms one wishes to specify. In this paper the authors describe a language that is suitable for the algorithmic specification of software controllers for a class of reactive systems of which the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system is an instance. The authors then specify an abstract controller for a subset of BART using this language.
The authors have investigated LiNi{sub 0.8}Co{sub 0.2}O{sub 2} (Sumitomo) and LiNi{sub 5/8}Co{sub 1/4}Mn{sub 1/16}Al{sub 1/16}O{sub 2} (Sandia chemical preparation method) cathode powders via in-situ X-ray Diffraction and Cyclic Voltammetry using a coffee-bag type electrochemical cell. Both cathode materials did not show a monoclinic distortion during de-intercalation but sustained the hexagonal structure up to 4.3 V. The doping of Co into the LiNiO{sub 2} structure appears to stabilize this lattice as the hexagonal structure over the full range of charging (up to 4.3 V). The LiNi{sub 5/8}Co{sub 1/4}Mn{sub 1/16}Al{sub 1/16}O{sub 2} cathode material exhibited a 160 mAh/g capacity (to 4.1 V) on its 1{sup st} cycle, while displaying a much smaller volume change (as compared to LiNi{sub 0.8}Co{sub 0.2}O{sub 2}) during de-intercalation. This reduced overall volume change (2.5 vol%) may have important implications for cycle life of this material.
Filamentation, and consequently output beam quality in InGaN quantum-well lasers are found to be strong functions of quantum-well width because of the interplay of quantum-confined Stark effect and many-body interactions. For an In{sub 0.2}Ga{sub 0.8}N/GaN gain medium the antiguiding factor in a thick 4nm quantum well is considerably smaller than that for a narrow 2nm one. As a result, lasers with the thicker quantum well maintain fundamental-mode operation with wider stripe widths and at significantly higher excitation levels.
High resolution measurements of spectrally resolved cathodoluminescence (CL) decay have been made in several commercial and experimental phosphors doped with Eu and Tb at beam energies ranging from 0.8 to 4 keV. CL emission from the lowest two excited states of both rare earth activators was compared to the decay of photoluminescence (PL) after pulsed laser excitation. We find that, at long times after the cessation of electron excitation, the CL decay rates are comparable to those measured in PL, at short times, the decay process is considerably faster and has a noticeable dependence on the energy of the electron beam. These beam energy effects are largest for the higher excited states and for phosphors with larger activator concentrations. Measurements of the experimental phosphors over a range of activator fractions from 0.1 to 0.002 show that the beam energy dependence of the steady-state CL efficiency is larger for higher excited states and weakens as the activator concentration is reduced. The latter effect is strongest for Y{sub 2}SiO{sub 5}:Tb, but also quite evident in Y{sub 2}O{sub 3}:Eu. We suggest that the electron beam dependence of both the decay lifetimes and the steady state CL efficiency may be due to interaction of nearby excited states which occurs as a result of the large energy deposition rate for low energy electrons. This picture-for non-radiative quenching of rare earth emission is an excited state analog of the well-known (ground state-excited state) concentration quenching mechanism.