Multiple scattering of light serves as a mechanism for feedback in random lasers. Consequently, internal spatial mode patterns, lasing wavelengths, and output directionality can all be random. Strong mode interaction can occur in such devices due to spatially overlapping modes resulting in nonlinearity with respect to the pump input power. Nevertheless, temporal coherence and lasing mode amplitude can be fixed at a constant pumping rate. This is a property desirable for applications where unique randomness is exploited but expected to be reliable over time, such as physical unclonable functions. Random lasers can also be cheaply and easily fabricated, exhibit relatively low lasing thresholds and high emission intensity. However, the precise scattering properties of such structures and fluctuations in the pump field can make device emission irreproducible, thereby limiting random laser applications. Here we directly compare the random lasing spectra from zinc oxide samples fabricated in four distinct ways: spin-coating, sputtering, solgel deposition, and atomic layer deposition. The particular method of fabrication has a strong impact. Samples made through atomic layer deposition here exhibit both reproducibility and strong nonlinearity desirable for applications. Randomness in emission spectra persists across hundreds of repeated and averaged measurements irrespective of spatial location and is demonstrably nonlinear with respect to input signal intensity.
Event-based sensors are a novel sensing technology which capture the dynamics of a scene via pixel-level change detection. This technology operates with high speed (>10 kHz), low latency (10 µs), low power consumption (<1 W), and high dynamic range (120 dB). Compared to conventional, frame-based architectures that consistently report data for each pixel at a given frame rate, event-based sensor pixels only report data if a change in pixel intensity occurred. This affords the possibility of dramatically reducing the data reported in bandwidth-limited environments (e.g., remote sensing) and thus, the data needed to be processed while still recovering significant events. Degraded visual environments, such as those generated by fog, often hinder situational awareness by decreasing optical resolution and transmission range via random scattering of light. To respond to this challenge, we present the deployment of an event-based sensor in a controlled, experimentally generated, well-characterized degraded visual environment (a fog analogue), for detection of a modulated signal and comparison of data collected from an event-based sensor and from a traditional framing sensor.
We report on a two-step technique for post-bond III-V substrate removal involving precision mechanical milling and selective chemical etching. We show results on GaAs, GaSb, InP, and InAs substrates and from mm-scale chips to wafers.
Moderate-temperature thermal sources (100° to 400°C) that radiate waste heat are often the by-product of mechanical work, chemical or nuclear reactions, or information processing. We demonstrate conversion of thermal radiation into electrical power using a bipolar grating-coupled complementary metal-oxide-silicon (CMOS) tunnel diode. A two-step photon-assisted tunneling charge pumping mechanism results in separation of charge carriers in pn-junction wells leading to a large open-circuit voltage developed across a load. Electrical power generation from a broadband blackbody thermal source has been experimentally demonstrated with converted power densities of 27 to 61 microwatts per square centimeter for thermal sources between 250° and 400°C. Scalable, efficient conversion of radiated waste heat into electrical power can be used to reduce energy consumption or to power electronics and sensors.
Transparent conducting oxides, such as doped indium oxide, zinc oxide, and cadmium oxide (CdO), have recently attracted attention as tailorable materials for applications in nanophotonic and plasmonic devices such as low-loss modulators and all-optical switches due to their tunable optical properties, fast optical response, and low losses. In this work, optically induced extraordinarily large reflection changes (up to 135%) are demonstrated in bulk CdO films in the mid-infrared wavelength range close to the epsilon near zero (ENZ) point. To develop a better understanding of how doping level affects the static and dynamic optical properties of CdO, the evolution of the optical properties with yttrium (Y) doping is investigated. An increase in the metallicity and a blueshift of the ENZ point with increasing Y-concentrations is observed. Broadband all-optical switching from near-infrared to mid-infrared wavelengths is demonstrated. The major photoexcited carrier relaxation mechanisms in CdO are identified and it is shown that the relaxation times can be significantly reduced by increasing the dopant concentration in the film. This work could pave the way to practical dynamic and passive optical and plasmonic devices with doped CdO spanning wavelengths from the ultraviolet to the mid-infrared region.
Major breakthroughs in silicon photonics often come from the integration of new materials into the platform, from bonding III-Vs for on-chip lasers to growth of Ge for high-speed photodiodes. This report describes the integration of transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) onto silicon waveguides to enable ultra-compact (<10 μm) electro-optical modulators. These modulators exploit the "epsilon-near-zero" effect in TCOs to create a strong light-matter interaction and allow for a significant reduction in footprint. Waveguide-integrated devices fabricated in the Sandia Microfab demonstrated gigahertz-speed operation of epsilon-near-zero based modulators for the first time. Numerical modeling of these devices matched well with theory and showed a path for significant improvements in device performance with high-carrier-mobility TCOs such as cadmium oxide. A cadmium oxide sputtering capability has been brought online at Sandia; integration of these high mobility films is the subject of future work to develop and mature this exciting class of Si photonics devices.
The deeply depleted graphene-oxide-semiconductor (D2GOS) junction detector provides an effective architecture for photodetection, enabling direct readout of photogenerated charge. Because of an inherent gain mechanism proportional to graphene's high mobility (μ), this detector architecture exhibits large responsivities and signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The ultimate sensitivity of the D2GOS junction detector may be limited, however, because of the generation of dark charge originating from interface states at the semiconductor/dielectric junction. Here, we examine the performance limitations caused by dark charge and demonstrate its mitigation via the creation of low interface defect junctions enabled by surface passivation. The resulting devices exhibit responsivities exceeding 10 000 A/W - a value which is 10× greater than that of analogous devices without the passivating thermal oxide. With cooling of the detector, the responsivity further increases to over 25 000 A/W, underscoring the impact of surface generation on performance and thus the necessity of minimizing interfacial defects for this class of photodetector.
The ability to control the light-matter interaction with an external stimulus is a very active area of research since it creates exciting new opportunities for designing optoelectronic devices. Recently, plasmonic metasurfaces have proven to be suitable candidates for achieving a strong light-matter interaction with various types of optical transitions, including intersubband transitions (ISTs) in semiconductor quantum wells (QWs). For voltage modulation of the light-matter interaction, plasmonic metasurfaces coupled to ISTs offer unique advantages since the parameters determining the strength of the interaction can be independently engineered. In this work, we report a proof-of-concept demonstration of a new approach to voltage-tune the coupling between ISTs in QWs and a plasmonic metasurface. In contrast to previous approaches, the IST strength is here modified via control of the electron populations in QWs located in the near field of the metasurface. By turning on and off the ISTs in the semiconductor QWs, we observe a modulation of the optical response of the IST coupled metasurface due to modulation of the coupled light-matter states. Because of the electrostatic design, our device exhibits an extremely low leakage current of ∼6 pA at a maximum operating bias of +1 V and therefore very low power dissipation. Our approach provides a new direction for designing voltage-tunable metasurface-based optical modulators.
We report on the fabrication and characterization of nanocrystalline ZnO films for use as a random laser physical unclonable function (PUF). Correlation between processing conditions and film microstructure will be made to optimize the lasing properties and random response. We will specifically examine the repeatability and security of PUFs demonstrated in this novel system. This demonstration has promise to impact many of Sandia's core missions including counterfeit detection.
Considering the power constrained scaling of silicon complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor technology, the use of high mobility III-V compound semiconductors such as In0.53Ga0.47As in conjunction with high-κ dielectrics is becoming a promising option for future n-type metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect-transistors. Development of low dissipation field-effect tunable III-V based photonic devices integrated with high-κ dielectrics is therefore very appealing from a technological perspective. In this work, we present an experimental realization of a monolithically integrable, field-effect-tunable, III-V hybrid metasurface operating at long-wave-infrared spectral bands. Our device relies on strong light-matter coupling between epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) modes of an ultra-thin In0.53Ga0.47As layer and the dipole resonances of a complementary plasmonic metasurface. The tuning mechanism of our device is based on field-effect modulation, where we modulate the coupling between the ENZ mode and the metasurface by modifying the carrier density in the ENZ layer using an external bias voltage. Modulating the bias voltage between ±2 V, we deplete and accumulate carriers in the ENZ layer, which result in spectrally tuning the eigenfrequency of the upper polariton branch at 13 μm by 480 nm and modulating the reflectance by 15%, all with leakage current densities less than 1 μA/cm2. Our wavelength scalable approach demonstrates the possibility of designing on-chip voltage-tunable filters compatible with III-V based focal plane arrays at mid- and long-wave-infrared wavelengths.
