Publications

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For an Energy System to be truly equitable, it should provide affordable and reliable energy services to disadvantaged and underserved populations. Disadvantaged communities often face a combination of economic, social, health, and environmental burdens and may be geographically isolated (e.g., rural communities), which systematically limits their opportunity to fully participate in aspects of economic, social, and civic life.

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The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter for the National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan's (MSIPP) projects titled, Indigenous Mutual Partnership to Advanced Cybersecurity Technology (ASPIRE), Indigenous Mutual Partnership to Advanced Cybersecurity Technology (IMPACT) and Partnership for Advanced Manufacturing Education and Research (PAMER).

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Deep level defects in wide bandgap semiconductors, whose response times are in the range of power converter switching times, can have a significant effect on converter efficiency. We use deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) to evaluate such defect levels in the n-drift layer of vertical gallium nitride (v-GaN) power diodes with VBD ∼1500 V. DLTS reveals three energy levels that are at ∼0.6 eV (highest density), ∼0.27 eV (lowest density), and ∼45 meV (a dopant level) from the conduction band. Dopant extraction from capacitance-voltage measurement tests (C-V) at multiple temperatures enables trap density evaluation, and the ∼0.6 eV trap has a density of 1.2 × 1015 cm-3. The 0.6 eV energy level and its density are similar to a defect that is known to cause current collapse in GaN based surface conducting devices (like high electron mobility transistors). Analysis of reverse bias currents over temperature in the v-GaN diodes indicates a predominant role of the same defect in determining reverse leakage current at high temperatures, reducing switching efficiency.

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The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter for the National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan's (MSIPP) project titled, Partnership for Advanced Manufacturing Education and Research (PAMER). In 2016, the National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) targeting Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) to offer programs that will prepare students for technical careers in NNSA’s laboratories and production plants. The MSIPP consortium’s approach is as follows: 1) align investments at the college and university level to develop a curriculum and workforce needed to support NNSA’s nuclear weapon enterprise mission, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities.

Abstract: In this study, dense bulk iron nitrides (FexN) were synthesized for the first time ever using spark plasma sintering (SPS) of FexN powders. The Fe4N phase of iron nitride in particular has significant potential to serve as a new soft magnetic material in both transformer and inductor cores and electrical machines. The density of SPSed FexN increased with SPS temperature and pressure. The microstructure of the consolidated bulk FexN was characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometry. XRD revealed a primary phase of Fe4N with secondary phases of Fe3N and metallic iron. Finite element analysis (FEA) was also applied to investigate and explain localized heating and temperature distribution during SPS. The effects of processing on interface bonding formation and phase evolution were investigated and discussed in detail to provide insight into fundamental phenomena and microstructural evolution in SPSed FexN. Graphic abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]

In 2016, the National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) targeting Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) to offer programs that will prepare students for technical careers in NNSA’s laboratories and production plants. The MSIPP consortium’s approach is as follows: 1) align investments at the college and university level to develop a curriculum and workforce needed to support NNSA’s nuclear weapon enterprise mission, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. The first TCU consortium that MSIPP launched was known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI) whose purpose was to develop additive manufacturing (AM) learning opportunities. The AMNI consortium consisted of Bay Mills Community College, Cankdeska Cikana Community College, Navajo Tech University, Salish Kootenai Community College, Turtle Mountain Community College, and United Tribes Technical College. In 2016, the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC), the AMNI consortium and the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI), in collaboration with Sandia National Labs, using a grant by NNSA hosted the first TCU Advanced Manufacturing Technology Summer Institute (TCU AMTSI). The AMNI consortium will officially end Sept. 2022. However, building on the successes of AMNI, in FY22 NNSA’s MSIPP launched three additional consortiums: (1) the Indigenous Mutual Partnership to Advanced Cybersecurity Technology (IMPACT), which focuses on STEM and cybersecurity, (2) the Advanced Synergistic Program for Indigenous Research in Engineering (ASPIRE), which focuses on STEM and the electrical and mechanical engineering skills set needed for renewable and distributed energy systems, and (3) the Partnership for Advanced Manufacturing Education and Research (PAMER), which focuses on developing and maintaining a sustainable pathway for a highly trained, next-generation additive manufacturing workforce and a corresponding community of subject matter experts for NNSA enterprises. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter for the ASPIRE program.

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Highlights: Battery energy storage may improve energy efficiency and reliability of hybrid energy systems composed by diesel and solar photovoltaic power generators serving isolated communities.In projects aiming update of power plants serving electrically isolated communities with redundant diesel generation, battery energy storage can improve overall economic performance of power supply system by reducing fuel usage, decreasing capital costs by replacing redundant diesel generation units, and increasing generator system life by shortening yearly runtime.Fast-acting battery energy storage systems with grid-forming inverters might have potential for improving drastically the reliability indices of isolated communities currently supplied by diesel generation. Abstract: This paper will highlight unique challenges and opportunities with regard to energy storage utilization in remote, self-sustaining communities. The energy management of such areas has unique concerns. Diesel generation is often the go-to power source in these scenarios, but these systems are not devoid of issues. Without dedicated maintenance crews as in large, interconnected network areas, minor interruptions can be frequent and invasive not only for those who lose power, but also for those in the community that must then correct any faults. Although the immediate financial benefits are perhaps not readily apparent, energy storage could be used to address concerns related to reliability, automation, fuel supply concerns, generator degradation, solar utilization, and, yes, fuel costs to name a few. These ideas are shown through a case study of the Levelock Village of Alaska. Currently, the community is faced with high diesel prices and a difficult supply chain, which makes temporary loss of power very common and reductions in fuel consumption very impactful. This study will investigate the benefits that an energy storage system could bring to the overall system life, fuel costs, and reliability of the power supply. The variable efficiency of the generators, impact of startup/shutdown process, and low-load operation concerns are considered. The technological benefits of the combined system will be explored for various scenarios of future diesel prices and technology maintenance/replacement costs as well as for the avoidance of power interruptions that are so common in the community currently. Graphic abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.] Discussion: In several cases, energy storage can provide a means to promote energy equity by improving remote communities’ power supply reliability to levels closer to what the average urban consumer experiences at a reduced cost compared to transmission buildout. Furthermore, energy equity represents a hard-to-quantify benefit achieved by the integration of energy storage to isolated power systems of under-served communities, which suggests that the financial aspects of such projects should be questioned as the main performance criterion. To improve battery energy storage system valuation for diesel-based power systems, integration analysis must be holistic and go beyond fuel savings to capture every value stream possible.

The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) 1) to align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

Energy storage technologies are positioned to play a substantial role in power delivery systems. They have the potential to serve as an effective new resource to maintain reliability and allow for increased penetration of renewable energy. However, because of their relative infancy, there is a lack of knowledge about how these resources truly operate over time. A data analysis can help ascertain the operational and performance characteristics of these emerging technologies. Rigorous testing and a data analysis are important for all stakeholders to ensure a safe, reliable system that performs predictably on a macro level. Standardizing testing and analysis approaches to verify the performance of energy storage devices, equipment, and systems when integrating them into the grid will improve the understanding and benefit of energy storage over time from technical and economic vantage points. Demonstrating the life-cycle value and capabilities of energy storage systems begins with the data that the provider supplies for the analysis. After a review of energy storage data received from several providers, some of these data have clearly shown to be inconsistent and incomplete, raising the question of their efficacy for a robust analysis. This report reviews and proposes general guidelines, such as sampling rates and data points, that providers must supply for a robust data analysis to take place. Consistent guidelines are the basis of a proper protocol and ensuing standards to (1) reduce the time that it takes for data to reach those who are providing the analysis; (2) allow them to better understand the energy storage installations; and (3) enable them to provide a high-quality analysis of the installations. The report is intended to serve as a starting point for what data points should be provided when monitoring. Readers are encouraged to use the guidance in the report to develop specifications for new systems, as well as enhance current efforts to ensure optimal storage performance. As battery technologies continue to advance and the industry expands, the report will be updated to remain current.

The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

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This paper presents an isolated bidirectional dc/dc converter for battery energy storage applications. Two main features of the proposed circuit topology are high voltage-conversion ratio and reduced battery current ripple. The primary side circuit is a quasi-switched-capacitor circuit with reduced voltage stress on switching devices and a 3:1 voltage step down ratio, which reduces the turns ratio of the transformer to 6:1:1. The secondary side circuit has an interleaved operation by utilizing the split magnetizing inductance of the transformer, which not only helps to increase the step down ratio but also reduces the battery current ripple. Similar to the dual-active-bridge circuit, the phase shift control is implemented to regulate the operation power of the circuit. A 1-kW, 300-kHz, 380-420 V/20-33 V GaN-based circuit prototype is currently under fabrication. The preliminary test results are presented.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

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Large-scale integration of energy storage on the electric grid will be essential to enabling greater penetration of intermittent renewable energy sources, modernizing the grid for increased flexibility security, reliability, and resilience, and enabling cleaner forms of transportation. The purpose of this report is to summarize Sandia's research and capabilities in energy storage and to provide a preliminary roadmap for future efforts in this area that can address the ongoing program needs of DOE and the nation. Mission and vision statements are first presented followed by an overview of the organizational structure at Sandia that provides support and activities in energy storage. Then, a summary of Sandia's energy storage capabilities is presented by technology, including battery storage and materials, power conversion and electronics, subsurface-based energy storage, thermal/thermochemical energy storage, hydrogen storage, data analytics/systems optimization/controls, safety of energy storage systems, and testing/demonstrations/model validation. A summary of identified gaps and needs is also presented for each technology and capability.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) initiated the Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA's enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new consortium in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) known as the Advanced Manufacturing Network Initiative (AMNI). This consortium has been extended for FY20 and FY21. The following report summarizes the status update during this quarter.

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High-temperature optical analysis of three different InGaN/GaN multiple quantum well (MQW) light-emitting diode (LED) structures (peak wavelength λ_p = 448, 467, and 515 nm) is conducted for possible integration as an optocoupler emitter in high density power electronic modules. The commercially available LEDs, primarily used in the display (λ_p = 467 and 515 nm) and lighting (λ_p = 448 nm) applications, are studied and compared to evaluate if they can satisfy the light output requirements in the optocouplers at high temperatures. The temperature- and intensity-dependent electroluminescence (T-IDEL) measurement technique is used to study the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of the LEDs. All three LEDs exhibit above 70% IQE at 500 K and stable operation at 800 K without flickering or failure. At 800 K, a promising IQE of above 40% is observed for blue for display (BD) (λ_p = 467 nm) and green for display (GD) (λ_p = 515 nm) samples. The blue for light (BL) (λ_p = 448 nm) sample shows 24% IQE at 800 K.

Commercial light emitting diode (LED) materials - blue (i.e., InGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells (MQWs) for display and lighting), green (i.e., InGaN/GaN MQWs for display), and red (i.e., Al0.05Ga0.45In0.5P/Al0.4Ga0.1In0.5P for display) are evaluated in range of temperature (77–800) K for future applications in high density power electronic modules. The spontaneous emission quantum efficiency (QE) of blue, green, and red LED materials with different wavelengths was calculated using photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The spontaneous emission QE was obtained based on a known model so-called the ABC model. This model has been recently used extensively to calculate the internal quantum efficiency and its droop in the III-nitride LED. At 800 K, the spontaneous emission quantum efficiencies are around 40% for blue for lighting and blue for display LED materials, and it is about 44.5% for green for display LED materials. The spontaneous emission QE is approximately 30% for red for display LED material at 800 K. The advance reported in this paper evidences the possibility of improving high temperature optocouplers with an operating temperature of 500 K and above.

The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) created a Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA's enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants, and 2) to enhance research and education at underrepresented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new program in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). The following report summarizes the project focus and status updates during this reporting period.

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The purpose of the International Technology Roadmap for Wide-Bandgap Power Semiconductors (ITRW) Materials and Devices Working Group, which considers the materials science of Wide-and Ultra-Wide-Band-Gap (WBG and UWBG) semiconductors, in addition to device design, fabrication, and evaluation, is to formulate a long-term, international roadmap for WBG and UWBG materials and devices, consistent with the packaging and applications working groups of ITRW. The working group is co-chaired by Victor Veliadis (primarily representing silicon carbide (SiC) and related materials) and Robert Kaplar (primarily representing gallium nitride (GaN) and related materials, as well as emerging ultra-WBGs) and is split into four sub-working-groups, which are: 1) SiC materials and devices (co-chairs Jon Zhang and Mietek Bakowski). 2) Lateral GaN materials and devices (co-chairs Sameh Khalil and Peter Moens). 3) Vertical GaN materials and devices (co-chairs TBD). 4) Emerging UWBG materials and devices (co-chairs Mark Hollis). The first two subgroups represent technology that is far more mature than that of the latter two, and devices are available as commercial products in power applications. The primary focus of this article will be on developments in subgroups 1 and 2, with only brief descriptions of the latter two sub-groups, including future activities as they mature technologically.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) created a Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA's enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants and 2) to enhance research and education at underrepresented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new program in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). The following report summarizes the project focus and status update during this reporting period. The overall goal of this project is to establish a network of TCUs with essential advanced manufacturing facilities, associated training and education programs, and private sector and federal agency partnerships to both prepare an American Indian advanced manufacturing workforce and create economic and employment opportunities within Tribal communities through design, manufacturing, and marketing of high quality products. Some examples of high quality products involve next generation grid components such as mechanical energy storage, cabling for distribution of energy, and electrochemical energy storage enclosures.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) created a Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA's enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants and 2) to enhance research and education at underrepresented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new program in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (I'CUs). The following report summarizes the project focus and status update during this reporting period.

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The role of power electronics in the utility grid is continually expanding. As converter design processes mature and new advanced materials become available, the pace of industry adoption is poised to accelerate. Looking forward, we can envision a future in which power electronics are as integral to grid functionality as the transformer is today. The Enabling Advanced Power Electronics Technologies for the Next Generation Electric Utility Grid Workshop was organized by Sandia National Laboratories and held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, July 17 - 18, 2018 . The workshop helped attendees to gain a broader understanding of power electronics R&D needs—from materials to systems—for the next generation electric utility grid. This report summarizes discussions and presentations from the workshop and identifies opportunities for future efforts.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) created a Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new program in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). The following report summarizes the project focus and status update during this reporting period.

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This paper presents a review of the main electrical components that are expected to be present in marine renewable energy arrays. The review is put in context by appraising the current needs of the industry and identifying the key components required in both device and array-scale developments. For each component, electrical, mechanical and cost considerations are discussed; with quantitative data collected during the review made freely available for use by the community via an open access online repository. This data collection updates previous research and addresses gaps specific to emerging offshore technologies, such as marine and floating wind, and provides a comprehensive resource for the techno-economic assessment of offshore energy arrays.

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The National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) created a Minority Serving Institution Partnership Plan (MSIPP) to 1) align investments in a university capacity and workforce development with the NNSA mission to develop the needed skills and talent for NNSA’s enduring technical workforce at the laboratories and production plants and 2) to enhance research and education at under-represented colleges and universities. Out of this effort, MSIPP launched a new program in early FY17 focused on Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). The following report summarizes the project focus and status update during this reporting period.

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The overall goal of this project is to establish a network of TCUs with essential advanced manufacturing (AM) facilities, associated training and education programs, and private sector and federal agency partnerships to both prepare an American Indian AM workforce and create economic and employment opportunities within Tribal communities through design, manufacturing, and marketing of high quality products. Some examples of high quality products involve next generation grid components such as mechanical energy storage, cabling for distribution of energy, and electrochemical energy storage enclosures. Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) is tasked to provide technical advising, planning, and academic program development support for the TCU/American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) Advanced Manufacturing Project. The TCUs include Bay Mills Community College (BMCC), Cankdeska Cikana Community College (CCCC), Navajo Technical University (NTU), Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI), and Salish Kooteani College. AIHEC and Sandia, with collaboration from SIPI, will be establishing an 8-week summer institute on the SIPI campus during the summer of 2017. Up to 20 students from TCUs are anticipated to take part in the summer program. The goal of the program is to bring AM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) awareness and opportunities for the American Indian students. Prior to the summer institute, Sandia will be providing reviews on curriculum plans at the each of the TCUs to ensure the content is consistent with current AM design and engineering practice. In addition, Sandia will provide technical assistance to each of the TCUs in regards to their current AM activities.

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The American Indian Research & Education Initiative (AIREI) is a pilot program that started in 2011 and is funded by the US Department of Energy (DOE) Economic Impact & Diversity and National Nuclear Security Administration in partnership with the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) and the American Indian Science and Engineering Society. AIREI brings science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) research and education funding to Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCU) and other US universities. AIREI has funded eight schools, including four pairs of tribal colleges and mainstream universities, in order for student and faculty research teams to bring energy projects to tribal lands. The research team from Southwest Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI) and Northern Arizona University (NAU) has performed a student-centric research and analysis feasibility study of a potential utility-scale solar power plant on the Jemez Pueblo reservation trust land. The research team from Navajo Technical University (NTU) and Arizona State University (ASU) has assessed the effectiveness of solar photovoltaic (PV) system designs in meeting the electricity demands of Navajo Tribal homes and public buildings in addition to the development of a solar technology curriculum that incorporates the outcomes of this study, helping to advance PV system design and installations on local Tribal lands. The Little Big Horn College (LBHC) and Montana State University-Bozeman (MSUB) team has developed fast growing strains of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria to help advance carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies. The research supported the Crow Nation reservation as it evaluates opportunities for coal-to-liquid fuel and CCS projects. The Sinte Gleska University (SGU) and South Dakota School of Mines (SDSM) team developed computer modeling and simulation technologies to evaluate the feasibility of oil and gas development from the Niobrara Formation on the Rosebud Sioux reservation. Through this project, the students developed skills in applied energy-related research involving computer simulation, chemistry, geology, and petroleum engineering. AIREI supports collaboration between these universities and connects the teams with the technological expertise and mentorship opportunities provided through Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia). AIHEC consists of 37 American Indian tribally controlled colleges around the nation and provides technical assistance through professional development workshops, strategic planning meetings, and information sharing strategies.

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Epitaxial (111) MgO films were prepared on (0001) AlxGa1-xN via molecular-beam epitaxy for x=0 to x=0.67. Valence band offsets of MgO to AlxGa1-xN were measured using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy as 1.65±0.07eV, 1.36±0.05eV, and 1.05±0.09eV for x=0, 0.28, and 0.67, respectively. This yielded conduction band offsets of 2.75eV, 2.39eV, and 1.63eV for x=0, 0.28, and 0.67, respectively. All band offsets measured between MgO and AlxGa1-xN provide a>1eV barrier height to the semiconductor.

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This project focused on developing a novel, scalable, and economic growth technique for bulk gallium nitride (GaN), a critical material for next-generation high-temperature power electronics. Large area, high-quality bulk GaN is required as a substrate material in order to grow highly efficient bipolar transistors for inverters and power conditioning. Attempting to grow GaN in bulk by traditional precipitation methods forces extreme thermodynamic and kinetic conditions, putting these techniques at the extremes of experimental science, which is unsuitable for large-area, cost-effective substrate growth. The Electrochemical Solution Growth (ESG) technique is a novel concept that addresses these issues in a unique way, and was developed at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), in part under this program. The crucial step in demonstrating the technique’s feasibility was to deposit high-quality GaN on a seed crystal. The bulk of SNL’s activities were focused on developing conditions for deposition of GaN on a seed crystal (a thin film of GaN grown by metal organic chemical vapor phase deposition (MOCVD) on c-axis oriented sapphire) in a molten salt electrolyte solution using a rotating disk reactor (RDR) ESG apparatus. This project was actively funded from FY08 to FY12 by the Energy Storage Program and GaN Initiative for Grid Applications (GIGA) program of the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Some activities focused on silicon doping of GaN occurred in FY13 but only through the use of carryover funds.

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Multi-objective optimization is used to find a nondominated set of solutions for two conflicting performance metrics or objective functions. These functions are dependent variables in the system, controlled by a set of independent variables called decision variables. The decision variables represent the inputs to the problem, chosen by the system designer, and are values listed in the solution set. In this study, a multi-objective genetic algorithm compared insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) failure rate to filter and cooling system costs. This study demonstrated the use of multi-objective optimization for energy storage systems. IGBT failure rate was compared to its associated filter and cooling-system costs as part of the DC-AC inverter power electronics system in a battery energy storage system (BESS). The independent or decision variables were determined to be switching frequency and thermal resistance of a heat sink, R_sink. The final results indicated that high values of switching frequency increased the effects of R_sink. Future work will add additional objective functions and decision variables to the study to optimize additional components in the power electronics system and BESS.

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