Thermal actuators have proven to be a robust actuation method in surface-micromachined MEMS processes. Their higher output force and lower input voltage make them an attractive alternative to more traditional electrostatic actuation methods. A predictive model of thermal actuator behavior has been developed and validated that can be used as a design tool to customize the performance of an actuator to a specific application. This tool has also been used to better understand thermal actuator reliability by comparing the maximum actuator temperature to the measured lifetime. Modeling thermal actuator behavior requires the use of two sequentially coupled models, the first to predict the temperature increase of the actuator due to the applied current and the second to model the mechanical response of the structure due to the increase in temperature. These two models have been developed using Matlab for the thermal response and ANSYS for the structural response. Both models have been shown to agree well with experimental data. In a parallel effort, the reliability and failure mechanisms of thermal actuators have been studied. Their response to electrical overstress and electrostatic discharge has been measured and a study has been performed to determine actuator lifetime at various temperatures and operating conditions. The results from this study have been used to determine a maximum reliable operating temperature that, when used in conjunction with the predictive model, enables us to design in reliability and customize the performance of an actuator at the design stage.
MEMS components by their very nature have different and unique failure mechanisms than their macroscopic counterparts. This paper discusses failure mechanisms observed in various MEMS components and technologies. MEMS devices fabricated using bulk and surface micromachining process technologies are emphasized.
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) have gained acceptance as viable products for many commercial and government applications. MEMS are currently being used as displays for digital projection systems, sensors for airbag deployment systems, inkjet print head systems, and optical routers. This paper will discuss current and future MEMS applications.
MEMS processes and components are rapidly changing in device design, processing, and, most importantly, application. This paper will discuss the future challenges faced by the MEMS failure analysis as the field of MEMS (fabrication, component design, and applications) grows. Specific areas of concern for the failure analyst will also be discussed.
Various tools and techniques, which were leveraged from the IC industry, were used for the failure analysis and qualification of MEMS. Resistive contrast imaging (RCI) was employed to analyze a wide variety of MEMS technologies. Multi-functional analytical tools are able to operate several samples in parallel and extract structural, chemical and electrical information.
This work demonstrates a polycrystalline silicon surface-micromachined inchworm actuator that exhibits high-performance characteristics such as large force ({+-}0.5 millinewtons), large velocity range (0 to {+-}4.4 mm/sec), large displacement range ({+-}100 microns), small step size ({+-}10, {+-}40 or {+-}100 nanometers), low power consumption (nanojoules per cycle), continuous bidirectional operation and relatively small area (600 x 200{micro}m{sup 2}). An in situ load spring calibrated on a logarithmic scale from micronewtons to millinewtons, optical microscopy and Michelson interferometry are used to characterize its performance. The actuator consists of a force-amplifying plate that spans two voltage-controlled clamps, and walking is achieved by appropriately sequencing signals to these three components. In the clamps, normal force is borne by equipotential rubbing counterfaces, enabling friction to be measured against load. Using different monolayer coatings, we show that the static coefficient of friction can be changed from 0.14 to 1.04, and that it is load-independent over a broad range. We further find that the static coefficient of friction does not accurately predict the force generated by the actuator and attribute this to nanometer-scale presliding tangential deflections.
We have designed and fabricated a polysilicon sidewall-contact motion monitor that fits in between the teeth of a MEMS gear. The monitor has a center grounded member that is moved into contact with a pad held at voltage. When observing motion, however, the monitor fails after only a few actuations. A thorough investigation of the contacting interfaces revealed that for voltages > 5 V with a current limit of 100 pA, the main conduction process is Fowler-Nordheim tunneling. After a few switch cycles, the polysilicon interfaces became insulating. This is shown to be a permanent change and the suspected mechanism is field-induced oxidation of the asperity contacts. To reduce the effects of field-induced oxidation, tests were performed at 0.5 V and no permanent insulation was observed. However, the position of the two contacting surfaces produced three types of conduction processes: Fowler-Nordheim tunneling, ohmic, and insulator, which were observed in a random order during switch cycling. The alignment of contact asperities produced this positional effect.
Two major problems associated with Si-based MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) devices are stiction and wear. Surface modifications are needed to reduce both adhesion and friction in micromechanical structures to solve these problems. In this paper, we will present a CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) process that selectively coats MEMS devices with tungsten and significantly enhances device durability. Tungsten CVD is used in the integrated-circuit industry, which makes this approach manufacturable. This selective deposition process results in a very conformal coating and can potentially address both stiction and wear problems confronting MEMS processing. The selective deposition of tungsten is accomplished through the silicon reduction of WF6. The self-limiting nature of this selective. We deposition process ensures the consistency necessary for process control. The tungsten is deposited after the removal of the sacrificial oxides to minimize stress and process integration problems. Tungsten coating adheres well and is hard and conducting, requirements for device performance. Furthermore, since the deposited tungsten infiltrates under adhered silicon parts and the volume of W deposited is less than the amount of Si consumed, it appears to be possible to release stuck parts that are contacted over small areas such as dimples. The wear resistance of selectively coated W parts has been shown to be significantly improved on microengine test structures.
Failure analysis (FA) tools have been applied to analyze tungsten coated polysilicon microengines. These devices were stressed under accelerated conditions at ambient temperatures and pressure. Preliminary results illustrating the failure modes of microengines operated under variable humidity and ultra-high drive frequency will also be shown. Analysis of tungsten coated microengines revealed the absence of wear debris in microengines operated under ambient conditions. Plan view imaging of these microengines using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed no accumulation of wear debris on the surface of the gears or ground plane on microengines operated under standard laboratory conditions. Friction bearing surfaces were exposed and analyzed using the focused ion beam (FIB). These cross sections revealed no accumulation of debris along friction bearing surfaces. By using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in conjunction with electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), we were able to identify the thickness, elemental analysis, and crystallographic properties of tungsten coated MEMS devices. Atomic force microscopy was also utilized to analyze the surface roughness of friction bearing surfaces.
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) and electrical overstress (EOS) damage of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) has been identified as a new failure mode. This failure mode has not been previously recognized or addressed primarily due to the mechanical nature and functionality of these systems, as well as the physical failure signature that resembles stiction. Because many MEMS devices function by electrostatic actuation, the possibility of these devices not only being susceptible to ESD or EOS damage but also having a high probability of suffering catastrophic failure due to ESD or EOS is very real. Results from previous experiments have shown stationary comb fingers adhered to the ground plane on MEMS devices tested in shock, vibration, and benign environments. Using Sandia polysilicon microengines, we have conducted tests to establish and explain the ESD/EOS failure mechanism of MEMS devices. These devices were electronically and optically inspected prior to and after ESD and EOS testing. This paper will address the issues surrounding MEMS susceptibility to ESD and EOS damage as well as describe the experimental method and results found from ESD and EOS testing. The tests were conducted using conventional IC failure analysis and reliability assessment characterization tools. In this paper we will also present a thermal model to accurately depict the heat exchange between an electrostatic comb finger and the ground plane during an ESD event.
Two major problems associated with Si-based MEMS devices are stiction and wear. Surface modifications are needed to reduce both adhesion and friction in micromechanical structures to solve these problems. In this paper, the authors will present a process used to selectively coat MEMS devices with tungsten using a CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) process. The selective W deposition process results in a very conformal coating and can potentially solve both stiction and wear problems confronting MEMS processing. The selective deposition of tungsten is accomplished through silicon reduction of WF{sub 6}, which results in a self-limiting reaction. The selective deposition of W only on polysilicon surfaces prevents electrical shorts. Further, the self-limiting nature of this selective W deposition process ensures the consistency necessary for process control. Selective tungsten is deposited after the removal of the sacrificial oxides to minimize process integration problems. This tungsten coating adheres well and is hard and conducting, requirements for device performance. Furthermore, since the deposited tungsten infiltrates under adhered silicon parts and the volume of W deposited is less than the amount of Si consumed, it appears to be possible to release stuck parts that are contacted over small areas such as dimples. Results from tungsten deposition on MEMS structures with dimples will be presented. The effect of wet and vapor phase cleanings prior to the deposition will be discussed along with other process details. The W coating improved wear by orders of magnitude compared to uncoated parts. Tungsten CVD is used in the integrated-circuit industry, which makes this approach manufacturable.
In order to determine the susceptibility of the MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) devices to shock, tests were performed using haversine shock pulses with widths of 1 to 0.2 ms in the range from 500g to 40,000g. The authors chose a surface-micromachined microengine because it has all the components needed for evaluation: springs that flex, gears that are anchored, and clamps and spring stops to maintain alignment. The microengines, which were unpowered for the tests, performed quite well at most shock levels with a majority functioning after the impact. Debris from the die edges moved at levels greater than 4,000g causing shorts in the actuators and posing reliability concerns. The coupling agent used to prevent stiction in the MEMS release weakened the die-attach bond, which produced failures at 10,000g and above. At 20,000g the authors began to observe structural damage in some of the thin flexures and 2.5-micron diameter pin joints. The authors observed electrical failures caused by the movement of debris. Additionally, they observed a new failure mode where stationary comb fingers contact the ground plane resulting in electrical shorts. These new failure were observed in the control group indicating that they were not shock related.
Two major problems associated with Si-based MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) devices are stiction and wear. Surface modifications are needed to reduce both adhesion and friction in micromechanical structures to solve these problems. In this paper, we will present a CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) process that selectively coats MEMS devices with tungsten and significantly enhances device durability. Tungsten CVD is used in the integrated-circuit industry, which makes this approach manufacturable. This selective deposition process results in a very conformal coating and can potentially address both stiction and wear problems confronting MEMS processing. The selective deposition of tungsten is accomplished through the silicon reduction of WF6. The self-limiting nature of the process ensures consistent process control. The tungsten is deposited after the removal of the sacrificial oxides to minimize stress and process integration problems. The tungsten coating adheres well and is hard and conducting, which enhances performance for numerous devices. Furthermore, since the deposited tungsten infiltrates under adhered silicon parts and the volume of W deposited is less than the amount of Si consumed, it appears to be possible to release adhered parts that are contacted over small areas such as dimples. The wear resistance of tungsten coated parts has been shown to be significantly improved by microengine test structures.
MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) were subjected to a vibration environment that had a peak acceleration of 120 g and spanned frequencies from 20 to 2000 Hz. The device chosen for this test was a surface-micromachined microengine because it possesses many elements (springs, gears, rubbing surfaces) that may be susceptible to vibration. The microengines were unpowered during the test. We observed 2 vibration-related failures and 3 electrical failures out of 22 microengines tested. Surprisingly, the electrical failures also arose in four microengines in our control group indicating that they were not vibration related. Failure analysis revealed that the electrical failures were due to shorting of stationary comb fingers to the ground plane.
The burgeoning new technology of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) shows great promise in the weapons arena. We can now conceive of micro-gyros, micro-surety systems, and micro-navigators that are extremely small and inexpensive. Do we want to use this new technology in critical applications such as nuclear weapons? This question drove us to understand the reliability and failure mechanisms of silicon surface-micromachined MEMS. Development of a testing infrastructure was a crucial step to perform reliability experiments on MEMS devices and will be reported here. In addition, reliability test structures have been designed and characterized. Many experiments were performed to investigate failure modes and specifically those in different environments (humidity, temperature, shock, vibration, and storage). A predictive reliability model for wear of rubbing surfaces in microengines was developed. The root causes of failure for operating and non-operating MEMS are discussed. The major failure mechanism for operating MEMS was wear of the polysilicon rubbing surfaces. Reliability design rules for future MEMS devices are established.
Failure analysis (FA) tools have been applied to analyze failing polysilicon microengines. These devices were stressed to failure under accelerated conditions in both oxidizing and non-oxidizing environments. The dominant failure mechanism of these microengines was identified as wear of rubbing surfaces. This often results in either seized microengines or microengines with broken pin joints. Analysis of these failed polysilicon devices found that wear debris was produced in both oxidizing and non-oxidizing environments. By varying the relative percent humidity (%RH), we observed an increase in the amount of wear debris with decreasing humidity. Plan view imaging using scanning electron microscopy revealed build-up of wear debris on the surface of microengines. Focused ion beam (FIB) cross sections revealed the location and build-up of wear debris within the microengine. Seized regions were also observed in the pin joint area using FIB processing. By using transmission electron microscopy in conjunction with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), we were able to identify wear debris produced in low (1.8% RH), medium and high (39% RH) humidities.