Publications

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This work provides the first demonstration of vertical GaN Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS) rectifiers fabricated by etch and regrowth of p-GaN. A reverse blocking voltage near 1500 V was achieved at 1 mA reverse leakage, with a sub 1 V turn-on and a specific on-resistance of 10 mΩ-cm2. This result is compared to other reported JBS devices in the literature and our device demonstrates the lowest leakage slope at high reverse bias. A large initial leakage current is present near zero-bias which is attributed to a combination of inadequate etch-damage removal and passivation induced leakage current.

Etched-and-regrown GaN pn-diodes capable of high breakdown voltage (1610 V), low reverse current leakage (1 nA = 6 μ A /cm2 at 1250 V), excellent forward characteristics (ideality factor 1.6), and low specific on-resistance (1.1 m Ω.cm2) were realized by mitigating plasma etch-related defects at the regrown interface. Epitaxial n -GaN layers grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition on free-standing GaN substrates were etched using inductively coupled plasma etching (ICP), and we demonstrate that a slow reactive ion etch (RIE) prior to p -GaN regrowth dramatically increases diode electrical performance compared to wet chemical surface treatments. Etched-and-regrown diodes without a junction termination extension (JTE) were characterized to compare diode performance using the post-ICP RIE method with prior studies of other post-ICP treatments. Then, etched-and-regrown diodes using the post-ICP RIE etch steps prior to regrowth were fabricated with a multi-step JTE to demonstrate kV-class operation.

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Ammonothermal growth of bulk gallium nitride (GaN) crystals is considered the most suitable method to meet the demand for high quality bulk substrates for power electronics. A non-destructive evaluation of defect content in state-of-the-art ammonothermal substrates has been carried out by synchrotron X-ray topography. Using a monochromatic beam in grazing incidence geometry, high resolution X-ray topographs reveal the various dislocation types present. Ray-tracing simulations that were modified to take both surface relaxation and absorption effects into account allowed improved correlation with observed dislocation contrast so that the Burgers vectors of the dislocations could be determined. The images show the very high quality of the ammonothermal GaN substrate wafers which contain low densities of threading dislocations (TDs) but are free of basal plane dislocations (BPDs). Threading mixed dislocations (TMDs) were found to be dominant among the TDs, and the overall TD density (TDD) of a 1-inch wafer was found to be as low as 5.16 × 103 cm−2.

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Steady-state photocapacitance (SSPC) was conducted on nonpolar m-plane GaN n-type Schottky diodes to evaluate the defects induced by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) dry etching in etched-and-regrown unipolar structures. An ∼10× increase in the near-midgap Ec - 1.9 eV level compared to an as-grown material was observed. Defect levels associated with regrowth without an etch were also investigated. The defects in the regrown structure (without an etch) are highly spatially localized to the regrowth interface. Subsequently, by depth profiling an etched-and-regrown sample, we show that the intensities of the defect-related SSPC features associated with dry etching depend strongly on the depth away from the regrowth interface, which is also reported previously [Nedy et al., Semicond. Sci. Technol. 30, 085019 (2015); Fang et al., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 42, 4207-4212 (2003); and Cao et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 47, 1320-1324 (2000)]. A photoelectrochemical etching (PEC) method and a wet AZ400K treatment are also introduced to reduce the etch-induced deep levels. A significant reduction in the density of deep levels is observed in the sample that was treated with PEC etching after dry etching and prior to regrowth. An ∼2× reduction in the density of Ec - 1.9 eV level compared to a reference etched-and-regrown structure was observed upon the application of PEC etching treatment prior to the regrowth. The PEC etching method is promising for reducing defects in selective-area doping for vertical power switching structures with complex geometries [Meyers et al., J. Electron. Mater. 49, 3481-3489 (2020)].

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Researchers have been extensively studying wide-bandgap (WBG) semiconductor materials such as gallium nitride (GaN) with an aim to accomplish an improvement in size, weight, and power of power electronics beyond current devices based on silicon (Si). However, the increased operating power densities and reduced areal footprints of WBG device technologies result in significant levels of self-heating that can ultimately restrict device operation through performance degradation, reliability issues, and failure. Typically, self-heating in WBG devices is studied using a single measurement technique while operating the device under steady-state direct current measurement conditions. However, for switching applications, this steady-state thermal characterization may lose significance since the high power dissipation occurs during fast transient switching events. Therefore, it can be useful to probe the WBG devices under transient measurement conditions in order to better understand the thermal dynamics of these systems in practical applications. In this work, the transient thermal dynamics of an AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) were studied using thermoreflectance thermal imaging and Raman thermometry. Also, the proper use of iterative pulsed measurement schemes such as thermoreflectance thermal imaging to determine the steady-state operating temperature of devices is discussed. These studies are followed with subsequent transient thermal characterization to accurately probe the self-heating from steady-state down to submicrosecond pulse conditions using both thermoreflectance thermal imaging and Raman thermometry with temporal resolutions down to 15 ns.

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Gallium nitride substrates grown by the hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) method using a patterned growth process have been characterized by synchrotron monochromatic beam X-ray topography in the grazing incidence geometry. Images reveal a starkly heterogeneous distribution of dislocations with areas as large as 0.3 mm2 containing threading dislocation densities below 103 cm−2 in between a grid of strain centers with higher threading dislocation densities (>104 cm−2). Basal plane dislocation densities in these areas are as low as 104 cm−2. By comparing the recorded images of dislocations with ray tracing simulations of expected dislocations in GaN, the Burgers vectors of the dislocations have been determined. The distribution of threading screw/mixed dislocations (TSDs/TMDs), threading edge dislocations (TEDs) and basal plane dislocations (BPDs) is discussed with implications for fabrication of power devices.

A sidewall activation process was optimized for buried magnesium-doped p-GaN layers yielding a significant reduction in tunnel junction-enabled light emitting diode (LED) forward voltage. This buried activation enabled the realization of cascaded blue LEDs with fully transparent GaN homojunction tunnel junctions. The initial optimization of buried p-GaN activation was performed on PN junctions grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) buried under hybrid tunnel junctions grown by MOCVD and molecular beam epitaxy. Next the activation process was implemented in cascaded blue LEDs emitting at 450 nm, which were enabled by fully transparent GaN homojunction tunnel junctions. The tunnel junction-enabled multi-active region blue LEDs were grown monolithically by MOCVD. This work demonstrates a state-of-the-art tunnel junction-enabled cascaded LED utilizing homojunction tunnel junctions which do not contain any heterojunction interface.

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AlGaN polarization-doped field-effect transistors were characterized by DC and pulsed measurements from room temperature to 500 °C in ambient. DC current-voltage characteristics demonstrated only a 70% reduction in on-state current from 25 to 500 °C and full gate modulation, regardless of the operating temperature. Near ideal gate lag measurement was realized across the temperature range that is indicative of a high-quality substrate and sufficient surface passivation. The ability for operation at high temperature is enabled by the high Schottky barrier height from the Ni/Au gate contact, with values of 2.05 and 2.76 eV at 25 and 500 °C, respectively. The high barrier height due to the insulatorlike aluminum nitride layer leads to an ION/IOFF ratio of 1.5 × 109 and 6 × 103 at room temperature and 500 °C, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy was used to confirm the stability of the heterostructure even after an extended high-temperature operation with only minor interdiffusion of the Ni/Au Schottky contact. The use of refractory metals in all contacts will be key to ensure a stable extended high-temperature operation.

Research results for AlGaN-channel transistors are reviewed as they have progressed from low Al-content and long-channel devices to Al-rich and short-channel RF devices. Figure of merit (FOM) analysis shows encouraging comparisons relative to today's state-of-the-art GaN devices for high Al-content and elevated temperatures. Critical electric field (EC), which fuels the AlGaN transistor FOM for high Al-composition, is not measured directly, but average gate-drain electric field at breakdown is substantially better in multiple reported AlGaN-channel devices compared to GaN. Challenges for AlGaN include the constraints arising from relatively low room temperature mobility dominated by ternary alloy scattering and the difficulty of making low-resistivity Ohmic contacts to high Al-content materials. Nevertheless, considerable progress has been made recently in the formation of low-resistivity Ohmic contacts to Al-rich AlGaN by using reverse compositional grading in the semiconductor, whereby a contact to a lower-Al alloy (or even to GaN) is made. Specific contact resistivity (ρc) approaching ρc ∼2 × 10-6ωcm2 to AlGaN devices with 70% Al-content in the channel has been reported. Along with scaling of the channel length and tailoring of the threshold voltage, this has enabled a dramatic increase in the current density, which has now reached 0.6 A/mm. Excellent ION/IOFF current ratios have been reported for Schottky-gated structures, in some cases exceeding 109. Encouraging RF performance in Al-rich transistors has been reported as well, with fT and fmax demonstrated in the tens of gigahertz range for devices with less than 150 nm gates. Al-rich transistors have also shown lesser current degradation over temperature than GaN in extreme high-temperature environments up to 500 °C, while maintaining ION/IOFF ratios of ∼106 at 500 °C. Finally, enhancement-mode devices along with initial reliability and radiation results have been reported for Al-rich AlGaN transistors. The Al-rich transistors promise to be a very broad and exciting field with much more progress expected in the coming years as this technology matures.

GaN p-n diodes were formed by selective area regrowth on freestanding GaN substrates using a dry etch, followed by post-etch surface treatment to reduce etch-induced defects, and subsequent regrowth into wells. Etched-and-regrown diodes with a 150 μm diameter achieved 840 V operation at 0.5 A/cm2 reverse current leakage and a specific on-resistance of 1.2 mΩ·cm2. Etched-and-regrown diodes were compared with planar, regrown diodes without etching on the same wafer. Both types of diodes exhibited similar forward and reverse electrical characteristics, which indicate that etch-induced defectivity of the junction was sufficiently mitigated so as not to be the primary cause for leakage. An area dependence for forward and reverse leakage current density was observed, suggesting that the mesa sidewall provided a leakage path.

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Impacts of silicon, carbon, and oxygen interfacial impurities on the performance of high-voltage vertical GaN-based p–n diodes are investigated. The results indicate that moderate levels (≈5 × 10¹⁷ cm^-3) of all interfacial impurities lead to reverse blocking voltages (V_b) greater than 200 V at 1 μA cm^-2 and forward leakage of less than 1 µA cm^-2 at 1.7 V. At higher interfacial impurity levels, the performance of the diodes becomes compromised. Herein, it is concluded that each impurity has a different effect on the device performance. For example, a high carbon spike at the junction correlates with high off-state leakage current in forward bias (≈100× higher forward leakage current compared with a reference diode), whereas the reverse bias behavior is not severely affected (> 200 V at 1 μA cm^-2). High silicon and oxygen spikes at the junction strongly affect the reverse leakage currents (≈ 1–10 V at 1 μA cm^-2). Regrown diodes with impurity (silicon, oxygen, and carbon) levels below 5 × 10¹⁷ cm^-3 show comparable forward and reverse results with the reference continuously grown diodes. The effect of the regrowth interface position relative to the metallurgical junction on the diode performance is also discussed.

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The impact of dry-etch-induced defects on the electrical performance of regrown, c-plane, GaN p-n diodes where the p-GaN layer is formed by epitaxial regrowth using metal-organic, chemical-vapor deposition was investigated. Diode leakage increased significantly for etched-and-regrown diodes compared to continuously grown diodes, suggesting a defect-mediated leakage mechanism. Deep level optical spectroscopy (DLOS) techniques were used to identify energy levels and densities of defect states to understand etch-induced damage in regrown devices. DLOS results showed the creation of an emergent, mid-gap defect state at 1.90 eV below the conduction band edge for etched-and-regrown diodes. Reduction in both the reverse leakage and the concentration of the 1.90 eV mid-gap state was achieved using a wet chemical treatment on the etched surface before regrowth, suggesting that the 1.90 eV deep level contributes to increased leakage and premature breakdown but can be mitigated with proper post-etch treatments to achieve >600 V reverse breakdown operation.

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The aim and scope of this project was the development of a capability to prepare high-quality, epitaxial beta gallium oxide films by oxide reactive molecular-beam epitaxy. The purpose was to demonstrate that beta gallium oxide could be grown by such a method using Sandia’s existing oxide molecular-beam epitaxy instrument. The key activity in this project was the installation of a gallium oxide capability on the Sandia instrument. This required the acquisition of several custom items for the instrument, including: a gallium effusion cell, appropriate cell power supplies and temperature controllers, a shutter to block beam flux, installation of an existing ozone generator with a directed gas nozzle and controlled leak valve, and re-routing the chilled water system to accommodate the cell. In addition, beta gallium oxide single crystals were acquired and their surfaces characterized by reflection high energy electron diffraction.

Gate length dependent (80 nm–5000 mm) radio frequency measurements to extract saturation velocity are reported for Al0.85Ga0.15N/Al0.7Ga0.3N high electron mobility transistors fabricated into radio frequency devices using electron beam lithography. Direct current characterization revealed the threshold voltage shifting positively with increasing gate length, with devices changing from depletion mode to enhancement mode when the gate length was greater than or equal to 450 nm. Transconductance varied from 10 mS/mm to 25 mS/mm, with the 450 nm device having the highest values. Maximum drain current density was 268 mA/mm at 10 V gate bias. Scattering-parameter characterization revealed a maximum unity gain bandwidth (fT) of 28 GHz, achieved by the 80 nm gate length device. A saturation velocity value of 3.8 × 106 cm/s, or 35% of the maximum saturation velocity reported for GaN, was extracted from the fT measurements.

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AlGaN-channel high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) were operated as visible- and solar-blind photodetectors by using GaN nanodots as an optically active floating gate. The effect of the floating gate was large enough to switch an HEMT from the off-state in the dark to an on-state under illumination. This opto-electronic response achieved responsivity > 108 A/W at room temperature while allowing HEMTs to be electrically biased in the offstate for low dark current and low DC power dissipation. The influence of GaN nanodot distance from the HEMT channel on the dynamic range of the photodetector was investigated, along with the responsivity and temporal response of the floating gate HEMT as a function of optical intensity. The absorption threshold was shown to be controlled by the AlN mole fraction of the HEMT channel layer, thus enabling the same device design to be tuned for either visible- or solar-blind detection.

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Enhancement-mode Al0.7Ga0.3N-channel high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) were achieved through a combination of recessed etching and fluorine ion deposition to shift the threshold voltage (VTH) relative to depletion-mode devices by +5.6 V to VTH = +0.5 V. Accounting for the threshold voltage shift (ΔVTH), current densities of approximately 30 to 35 mA/mm and transconductance values of 13 mS/mm were achieved for both the control and enhancement mode devices at gate biases of 1 V and 6.6 V, respectively. Little hysteresis was observed for all devices, with voltage offsets of 20 mV at drain currents of 1.0 × 10-3mA/mm. Enhancement-mode devices exhibited slightly higher turn-on voltages (+0.38 V) for forward bias gate currents. Piecewise evaluation of a threshold voltage model indicated a ΔVTH of +3.3 V due to a gate recess etching of 12 nm and an additional +2.3 V shift due to fluorine ions near the AlGaN surface.

Commercial InGaN/GaN light emitting diodes continue to suffer from efficiency droop at high current densities, and urgently require enhanced structural-optical toolsets for active region characterization. In our work, we measure delayed (tens of seconds) cathodoluminescence which is influenced by carrier transport and deep level defects. Further, we observe that drops in efficiency are not correlated with quantum well (QW) width fluctuations. To explain the rise dynamics, we propose a model involving filling of deep level defects and simultaneous reduction of built-in field within the multi-QW active region. These measurements yield insights into carrier transport, efficiency-reducing defects, and QW band structure.

This work exhibits the ability to shift the threshold voltage of an Al0.45Ga0.55N/Al0.3Ga0.7N high electron mobility transistor through the implementation of a 100 nm thick p-Al0.3Ga0.7N gate. A maximum threshold voltage of +0.3 V was achieved with a 3 μm gate length. In addition to achieving enhancement-mode operation, this work also shows the capability to obtain high saturated drain current (>50 mA/mm), no gate hysteresis, high ION,MAX/IOFF,MIN ratio of >109, and exceptionally low gate leakage current of 10-6 mA/mm even under high forward bias of Vgs = 8 V.

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