Publications

Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, conducts the Energy Storage Systems Program, which is sponsored by the US Department of Energy`s Office of Utility Technologies. The goal of this program is to collaborate with industry in developing cost-effective electric energy storage systems for many high-value stationary applications. Sandia National Laboratories is responsible for the engineering analyses, contracted development, and testing of energy storage components and systems. This report details the technical achievements realized during fiscal year 1997. 46 figs., 20 tabs.

This is the third report in a series of studies to examine how US attitudes about nuclear security are evolving in the post-Cold War era and to identify trends in public perceptions and preferences relevant to the evolution of US nuclear security policy. It presents findings from three surveys: a nationwide telephone survey of randomly selected members of the US general public; a written survey of randomly selected members of American Men and Women of Science; and a written survey of randomly selected state legislators from all fifty US states. Key areas of investigation included nuclear security, cooperation between US and Russian scientists about nuclear issues, vulnerabilities of critical US infrastructures and responsibilities for their protection, and broad areas of US national science policy. While international and US national security were seen to be slowly improving, the primary nuclear threat to the US was perceived to have shifted from Russia to China. Support was found for nuclear arms control measures, including mutual reductions in stockpiles. However, respondents were pessimistic about eliminating nuclear armaments, and nuclear deterrence continued to be highly values. Participants favored decreasing funding f/or developing and testing new nuclear weapons, but supported increased investments in nuclear weapons infrastructure. Strong concerns were expressed about nuclear proliferation and the potential for nuclear terrorism. Support was evident for US scientific cooperation with Russia to strengthen security of Russian nuclear assets. Elite and general public perceptions of external and domestic nuclear weapons risks and external and domestic nuclear weapons benefits were statistically significantly related to nuclear weapons policy options and investment preferences. Demographic variables and individual belief systems were systematically related both to risk and benefit perceptions and to policy and spending preferences.

Classified designs usually include lesser classified (including unclassified) components. An engineer working on such a design needs access to the various sub-designs at lower classification levels. For simplicity, the problem is presented with only two levels: high and low. If the low-classification component designs are stored in the high network, they become inaccessible to persons working on a low network. In order to keep the networks separate, the component designs may be duplicated in all networks, resulting in a synchronization problem. Alternatively, they may be stored in the low network and brought into the high network when needed. The latter solution results in the use of sneaker-net (copying the files from the low system to a tape and carrying the tape to a high system) or a file transfer guard. This paper shows how an FTP Guard was constructed and implemented without degrading the security of the underlying B3 platform. The paper then shows how the guard can be extended to an FTP proxy server or an HTTP proxy server. The extension is accomplished by allowing the high-side user to select among items that already exist on the low-side. No high-side data can be directly compromised by the extension, but a mechanism must be developed to handle the low-bandwidth covert channel that would be introduced by the application.

In many manufacturing environments such as the nuclear weapons complex, emphasis has shifted from the regular production and delivery of large orders to infrequent small orders. However, the challenge to maintain the same high quality and reliability standards white building much smaller lot sizes remains. To meet this challenge, specific areas need more attention, including fast and on-target process start-up, low volume statistical process control, process characterization with small experiments, and estimating reliability given few actual performance tests of the product. In this paper the authors address the issue of low volume statistical process control. They investigate an adaptive filtering approach to process monitoring with a relatively short time series of autocorrelated data. The emphasis is on estimation and minimization of mean squared error rather than the traditional hypothesis testing and run length analyses associated with process control charting. The authors develop an adaptive filtering technique that assumes initial process parameters are unknown, and updates the parameters as more data become available. Using simulation techniques, they study the data requirements (the length of a time series of autocorrelated data) necessary to adequately estimate process parameters. They show that far fewer data values are needed than is typically recommended for process control applications. And they demonstrate the techniques with a case study from the nuclear weapons manufacturing complex.

Risk assessment methodologies are ready to enter their third generation. In this next generation, assessment will be based on a whole system understanding of the system to be assessed. To realize this vision of risk management, the authors have begun development of an extensible software tool kit. This tool kit breaks with the traditional approach to assessment by having the analyst spend the majority of the assessment time building an explicit model that documents in a single framework the various facets of the system, such as the system`s behavior, structure, and history. Given this explicit model of the system, a computer is able to automatically produce a standard assessment products, such as fault trees and event trees. This brings with it a number of advantages relative to current risk management tools. Among these are a greater sense of completeness and correctness in assessment results and the ability to preserve and later employ lessons learned.

The sol-gel chemistry of a variety of trialkoxysilanes with different organic substituents, with methoxide or ethoxide substituents on silicon was examined at varying monomer concentrations ranging up to neat monomer and with different catalysts. Gels were prepared from tetramethoxysilane and tetraethoxysilane at identical concentrations for purposes of comparison. The polymerization reactions were monitored for the formation of gels, insoluble precipitates, soluble polymers, or polyhedral oligosilsesquioxanes.

A comprehensive critical infrastructure analysis of the People`s Republic of China was performed to address questions about China`s ability to meet its long-term grain requirements and energy needs and to estimate greenhouse gas emissions in China likely to result from increased agricultural production and energy use. Four dynamic computer simulation models of China`s infrastructures--water, agriculture, energy and greenhouse gas--were developed to simulate, respectively, the hydrologic budgetary processes, grain production and consumption, energy demand, and greenhouse gas emissions in China through 2025. The four models were integrated into a state-of-the-art comprehensive critical infrastructure model for all of China. This integrated model simulates diverse flows of commodities, such as water and greenhouse gas, between the separate models to capture the overall dynamics of the integrated system. The model was used to generate projections of China`s available water resources and expected water use for 10 river drainage regions representing 100% of China`s mean annual runoff and comprising 37 major river basins. These projections were used to develop estimates of the water surpluses and/or deficits in the three end-use sectors--urban, industrial, and agricultural--through the year 2025. Projections of the all-China demand for the three major grains (corn, wheat, and rice), meat, and other (other grains and fruits and vegetables) were also generated. Each geographic region`s share of the all-China grain demand (allocated on the basis of each region`s share of historic grain production) was calculated in order to assess the land and water resources in each region required to meet that demand. Growth in energy use in six historically significant sectors and growth in greenhouse gas loading were projected for all of China.

This paper explores the use of discrete-event simulation for the design and control of physical protection systems for fixed-site facilities housing items of significant value. It begins by discussing several modeling and simulation activities currently performed in designing and analyzing these protection systems and then discusses capabilities that design/analysis tools should have. The remainder of the article then discusses in detail how some of these new capabilities have been implemented in software to achieve a prototype design and analysis tool. The simulation software technology provides a communications mechanism between a running simulation and one or more external programs. In the prototype security analysis tool, these capabilities are used to facilitate human-in-the-loop interaction and to support a real-time connection to a virtual reality (VR) model of the facility being analyzed. This simulation tool can be used for both training (in real-time mode) and facility analysis and design (in fast mode).

Mixed arsenide/antimonide materials have unique properties which make them potentially valuable for use in VCSELs operating at wavelengths longer than 1 {micro}m. The authors present their progress in applying these materials to VCSEL designs for 1--1.55 {micro}m.

This report describes the results of an analysis to determine the economic and operational value of battery storage to wind and photovoltaic (PV) generation technologies to the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) system. The analysis approach consisted of performing a benefit-cost economic assessment using established SMUD financial parameters, system expansion plans, and current system operating procedures. This report presents the results of the analysis. Section 2 describes expected wind and PV plant performance. Section 3 describes expected benefits to SMUD associated with employing battery storage. Section 4 presents preliminary benefit-cost results for battery storage added at the Solano wind plant and the Hedge PV plant. Section 5 presents conclusions and recommendations resulting from this analysis. The results of this analysis should be reviewed subject to the following caveat. The assumptions and data used in developing these results were based on reports available from and interaction with appropriate SMUD operating, planning, and design personnel in 1994 and early 1995 and are compatible with financial assumptions and system expansion plans as of that time. Assumptions and SMUD expansion plans have changed since then. In particular, SMUD did not install the additional 45 MW of wind that was planned for 1996. Current SMUD expansion plans and assumptions should be obtained from appropriate SMUD personnel.

Single event gate rupture (SEGR) is a catastrophic failure mode that occurs in dielectric materials that are struck by energetic heavy ions while biased under a high electric field condition. SEGR can reduce the critical electric field to breakdown to less than half the value observed in normal voltage ramp reliability tests. As electric fields in gate oxides increase to greater than 5 MV/cm in advanced MOS technologies, the impact of SEGR on the reliability of space based electronics must be assessed. In this summary, the authors explore the nature of SEGR in oxides with thickness from 7 nm to less than 5 nm, where soft breakdown is often observed during traditional reliability tests. They discuss the possible connection between the present understanding of SEGR and voltage stress breakdown models.

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is under development by the US Department of Energy (DOE) for the geologic disposal of transuranic waste. The primary regulatory requirements (i.e., 40 CFR 191 and 40 CFR 194) placed on the WIPP by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) involve a complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF) for normalized radionuclide releases to the accessible environment. The interpretation and use of this CCDF from a decision analysis perspective is discussed and illustrated with results from the 1996 performance assessment for the WIPP, which was carried out to support a compliance certification application by the DOE to the EPA for the WIPP.

Non-shrinking polymers are desirable as encapsulants for strain-free packaging for electronics. Ring-opening polymerizations of cyclic monomers such as lactams, cyclic ethers, and cyclic oligosiloxanes have proven an effective strategy for reducing shrinkage. In this report the authors examined the loss of volume during the ring-opening polymerization of neat 2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-l-oxa-2,5-disilacyclopentane to give poly(1,2-ethylene-bis(dimethyl-siloxane)). Monomer 1 is under sufficient strain (8--12 kcal/mole) to permit its facile base-catalyzed polymerization to afford high molecular polymer. Monomer 1 was prepared by hydrolyzing and condensing either 1,2-bis(chlorodimethylsilyl)ethane or 1,m2-bis(dimethylethoxysilyl)ethane to give a low molecular weight oligomer. Pyrolysis of this oligomer with potassium hydroxide at 280 C afforded the cyclic monomer in good yield (60--70%). The ease with which the oligomer can be converted to monomer also led the authors to investigate the potential for recycling the high molecular weight polymer.

A backfill system has been designed for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) which will control the chemical environment of the post-closure repository to a domain where the actinide solubility is within its lowest region. The actinide solubility is highly dependent on the chemical species which constitute the fluid, the resulting pH of the fluid, and the oxidation state of the actinide which is stable under the specific conditions. The use of magnesium oxide (MgO) has the backfill material not only controls the pH of the expected fluids, but also effectively removes carbonate from the system, which has a significant impact on actinide solubility. The backfill selection process, emplacement system design, and confirmatory experimental results are presented.

In this paper the authors discuss the leveling process by which a business process ontology is formed in a distributed, multi-lingual, multi-stakeholder environment, with attention to realizing elicitation mechanisms that maintain registration of users` terms with the common ontology. Business processes are recognized from use-case analysis, specified in terms of the common ontology, and realized as operations on the components of a transaction: a temporally extended, complex, distributed object. A primary advantage of this approach is that users see private terminologies while the transaction object is specified in terms of the common ontology, and registration between the two is automatic and continuous. Ready realization of multiple interfaces to stakeholders, independently constructed validation and verification mechanisms, distributed data, and a standard elicitation mechanism and process are other advantages. The language formation process was used successfully during the development of the Border Trade Facilitation System, an agent-oriented mechanism that conducts international border-crossing transactions. In this implementation, agents operating within a federated architecture construct, populate, verify, certify, and manipulate a distributed composite transaction object to effect transport of goods over the US/Mexico border.

In order to promote internatinal confidence that the US and Russia are disarming per their commitments under Article 6 of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, an international verification regime may be applied to US and Russian excess fissile materials. Initially, it is envisioned that this verification regime would be applied at storage facilities; however, it should be anticipated that the verificatino regime would continue throughout any material disposition activities, should such activities be pursued. once the materials are accepted into the verification regime, it is assumed that long term monitoring will be used to maintain continuity of knowledge. The requirements for long term storage monitoring include unattended operation for extended periods of time, minimal intrusiveness on the host nation`s safety and security activities, data collection incorporating data authentication, and monitoring redundancy to allow resolution of anomalies and to continue coverage in the event of equipment failures. Additional requirements include effective data review and analysis processes, operation during storage facility loading, procedure for removal of inventory items for safety-related surveillance, and low cost, reliable equipment. A monitoring system might include both continuous monitoring of storagecontainers and continuous area monitoring. These would be complemented with periodic on-site inspections. A fissile material storage facility is not a static operation. The initial studies have shown there are a number of volid reasions why a host nation may need them to remove material from the storage facility. A practical monitoring system must be able to accommodate necessary material movements.

Deep-reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon, also known as high-aspect-ratio silicon etching (HARSE), is distinguished by fast etch rates ({approximately}3 {micro}m/min), crystal orientation independence, anisotropy, vertical sidewall profiles and CMOS compatibility. By using through-wafer HARSE and stopping on a dielectric film placed on the opposite side of the wafer, freestanding dielectric membranes were produced. Dielectric membrane-based sensors and actuators fabricated in this way include microhotplates, flow sensors, valves and magnetically-actuated flexural plate wave (FPW) devices. Unfortunately, low-stress silicon nitride, a common membrane material, has an appreciable DRI etch rate. To overcome this problem HARSE can be followed by a brief wet chemical etch. This approach has been demonstrated using KOH or HF/Nitric/Acetic etchants, both of which have significantly smaller etch rates on silicon nitride than does DRIE. Composite membranes consisting of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers are also under evaluation due to the higher DRIE selectivity to silicon dioxide.

For more than two decades, risk analysts have relied on powerful logic-based models to perform their analyses. However, the applicability of these models has been limited because they can be complex and expensive to develop. Analysts must frequently start from scratch when analyzing a new (but similar) system because the understanding of how the system works exists only in the mind of the analyst and is only incompletely instantiated in the actual logic model. This paper introduces the notion of using explicit object-oriented system models, such as those embodied in computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools, to document the analyst`s understanding of the system and appropriately capture how the system works. It also shows that from these models, standard assessment products, such as fault trees and event trees, can be automatically derived.

The authors describe the design, modeling, fabrication and initial testing of a new test structure for friction measurement in MEMS. The device consists of a cantilevered forked beam and a friction pad attached via a hinge. Compared to previous test structures, the proposed structure can measure friction over much larger pressure ranges, yet occupies one hundred times less area. The placement of the hinge is crucial to obtaining a well-known and constant pressure distribution in the device. Static deflections on the device were measured and modeled numerically, Preliminary results indicate that friction pad slip is sensitive to friction pad normal force.

In this paper a hybrid, finite element/boundary element method which can be used to solve for particle diffusion in semi-infinite domains containing geometric obstructions and a variable advective field is presented. In previous work either boundary element or finite element/difference methods were used to solve for particle concentrations in an advective domain. These methods of solution had a number of limitations. Due to limitations in computing spatially dependent Green`s functions, the boundary element method of solution was limited to domains containing only constant advective fields, and due to its inherent formulation, finite element/difference methods were limited to only domains of finite spatial extent. Thus, where the finite element solution was limited, the boundary element solution was not, and where the boundary element solution was limited, the finite element solution was not. In this paper it is proposed to split the total domain into two sub-domains where each method of solution is applicable. For each of these sub-domains, the appropriate solution method is used; thereby, producing a general method of solution for the total semi-infinite domain.

Recent developments in pulsed power technology demonstrate use of intense radiation sources (Z pinches) for driving planar shock waves in samples with spatial dimensions larger than possible with other radiation sources. Initial indications are that the use of Z pinch sources can be used to produce planar shock waves in samples with diameters of a few millimeters and thicknesses approaching one half millimeter. These dimensions allow increased accuracy of both shock velocity and particle velocity measurements. The Z pinch radiation source uses imploding metal plasma induced by self-magnetic fields applied to wire arrays to produce high temperature x-ray environments in vacuum hohlraum enclosures. Previous experiments have demonstrated that planar shock waves can be produced with this approach. A photograph of a wire array located inside the vacuum hohlraum is shown here. Typically, a few hundred individual wires are used to produce the Z pinch source. For the shock wave experiments being designed, arrays of 120 to 240 tungsten wires with a diameter of 40 mm and with individual diameters of about 10 {micro}m are used. Preliminary experiments have been performed on the Z pulsed radiation source to demonstrate the ability to obtain VISAR measurements in the Z accelerator environment. Analysis of these results indicate that another effect, not initially anticipated, is an apparent change in refractive index that occurs in the various optical components used in the system. This effect results in an apparent shift in the frequency of reflected laser light, and causes an error in the measured particle velocity. Experiments are in progress to understand and minimize this effect.

Chemical sensor arrays are an alternative to the tedious development of highly specific single-analyte detectors. Recent efforts have focused on the chemical and physical diversity of interface materials for SAW sensor arrays. However, the issues of wide dynamic range and high sensitivity must also be addressed for sensor arrays to compete in applications requiring low detection limits. Because SAW devices respond in proportion to change in mass per nominal unit area of the device surface, sensitivity is enhanced by surface modification with high-area, thin-film coating materials: a greater mass of analyte is adsorbed at a given ambient concentration. The authors are exploring several classes of electrochemically prepared high-area films, materials whose formulations and processing are well documented for applications other than chemical sensors. They present results from films formed by anodization, chemical conversion, and electroplating, yielding surface area enhancements as high as 170x.

The development and application of energy technologies for all aspects from generation to storage have improved dramatically with the advent of advanced computational tools, particularly modeling and simulation. Modeling and simulation are not new to energy technology development, and have been used extensively ever since the first commercial computers were available. However, recent advances in computing power and access have broadened the extent and use, and, through increased fidelity (i.e., accuracy) of the models due to greatly enhanced computing power, the increased reliance on modeling and simulation has shifted the balance point between modeling and experimentation. The complex nature of energy technologies has motivated researchers to use these tools to understand better performance, reliability and cost issues related to energy. The tools originated in sciences such as the strength of materials (nuclear reactor containment vessels); physics, heat transfer and fluid flow (oil production); chemistry, physics, and electronics (photovoltaics); and geosciences and fluid flow (oil exploration and reservoir storage). Other tools include mathematics, such as statistics, for assessing project risks. This paper describes a few advancements made possible by these tools and explores the benefits and costs of their use, particularly as they relate to the acceleration of energy technology development. The computational complexity ranges from basic spreadsheets to complex numerical simulations using hardware ranging from personal computers (PCs) to Cray computers. In all cases, the benefits of using modeling and simulation relate to lower risks, accelerated technology development, or lower cost projects.

The author presents a novel method for calculating the penetration of soft targets by hard projectiles by using a combination of ALE and contact surface techniques. This method allows the bifurcation in the softer material (at the point of the projectile) to be represented without sacrificing the Lagrangian representation of either the harder material or the contact interface. A series of calculations using this method show good agreement with the experimental data of Forrestal et al. This method may prove useful for a range of semi-fluid/structure interactions with friction, including simulations of manufacturing processes.

The Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS) was established to define a framework for the essential functions of managing work safely. There are five Safety Management Functions in the model of the ISMS process: (1) work planning, (2) hazards analysis, (3) hazards control, (4) work performance, and (5) feedback and improve. Recent activities at the Radioactive and Mixed Waste Management Facility underscored the importance and effectiveness of integrating the ISMS process to safely manage high-hazard work with a minimum of personnel in a timely and efficient manner. This report describes how project personnel followed the framework of the ISMS process to successfully repackage tritium-contaminated oils. The main objective was to open the boxes without allowing the gaseous tritium oxide, which had built up inside the boxes, to release into the sorting room. The boxes would be vented out the building stack until tritium concentration levels were acceptable. The carboys would be repackaged into 30-gallon drums and caulked shut. Sealing the drums would decrease the tritium off-gassing into the RMWMF.

Sandia has used flyback transformers for many years, primarily to charge capacitors for capacitive discharge units. Important characteristics of the transformer design are to meet inductance, turns ratio, and high voltage breakdown requirements as well as not magnetically saturating during each energy transfer cycle. Sandia has taken over production responsibility for magnetic components from a previous GE/LM, General Electric/Lockheed Martin, facility in Florida that produced {approximately} 50 K units per year. Vanguard Electronics is working with Sandia to transfer many of these designs to Vanguard`s small manufacturing facility in Gardena, CA. The challenge is to achieve the required high reliability and meet all the other electrical requirements with such small quantities of parts, {approximately} 100 per year. DOE requirements include high reliability {le} 3 failures per 10,000 components per 20 years while meeting numerous other environmental requirements. The basic design and prove-in required four lots of preproduction parts, extensive environmental testing, and numerous design changes. The manufacturing problems that affected performance of the transformer will be presented. These include encapsulation voids and core alignment. Also, some extended life test data that predicts long term reliability of newly produced transformers versus older designs will be compared.

This paper presents a Generalized Logistic (gLG) distribution as a unified model for Log-domain synthetic aperture Radar (SAR) data. This model stems from a special case of the G-distribution known as the G{sup 0}-distribution. The G-distribution arises from a multiplicative SAR model and has the classical K-distribution as another special case. The G{sup 0}-distribution, however, can model extremely heterogeneous clutter regions that the k-distribution cannot model. This flexibility is preserved in the unified gLG model, which is capable of modeling non-polarimetric SAR returns from clutter as well as man-made objects. Histograms of these two types of SAR returns have opposite skewness. The flexibility of the gLG model lies in its shape and shift parameters. The shape parameter describes the differing skewness between target and clutter data while the shift parameter compensates for movements in the mean as the shape parameter changes. A Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimate of the shape parameter gives an optimal measure of the skewness of the SAR data. This measure provides a basis for an optimal target detection algorithm.

In August 1995, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued a policy statement proposing improved regulatory decisionmaking by increasing the use of PRA [probabilistic risk assessment] in all regulatory matters to the extent supported by the state-of-the-art in PRA methods and data. A key aspect in using PRA in risk-informed regulatory activities is establishing the appropriate scope and attributes of the PRA. In this regard, ASME decided to develop a consensus PRA Standard. The objective is to develop a PRA Standard such that the technical quality of nuclear plant PRAs will be sufficient to support risk-informed regulatory applications. This paper presents examples recommendations for the systems analysis element of a PRA for incorporation into the ASME PRA Standard.

Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon was utilized to fabricate dielectric membrane-based devices such as microhotplates, valves and flexural plate wave (FPW) devices. Through-wafer DRIE is characterized by fast etch rates ({approximately} 3 {micro}m/min), crystal orientation independence, vertical sidewall profiles and CMOS compatibility. Low-stress silicon nitride, a popular membrane material, has an appreciable DRIE etch rate. To overcome this limitations DRIE can be accompanied by a brief wet chemical etch. This approach has been demonstrated using KOH or HF/Nitric/Acetic etchants, both of which have significantly lower etch rates on silicon nitride than does DRIE. The DRIE etch properties of composite membranes consisting of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers are also under evaluation due to the higher DRIE selectivity to silicon dioxide.

Molecular recognition is an important topic when searching for new, selective coating materials for chemical sensing. Recently, the general idea of molecular recognition in the gas phase was challenged by Grate et al. However, in earlier thickness-shear mode resonator (TSMR) investigations, convincing evidence was presented for specific recognition of particular analyte target molecules. In this study, the authors systematically investigated coatings previously shown to be highly selective, such as the bucket-like cyclodextrins for chiral recognition, Ni-camphorates for the specific detection of the bases pyridine and DMMP (dimethylmethylphosphonate), and phthalocyanines to specifically detect benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX).

chemical sensor arrays eliminate the need to develop a high-selectivity material for every analyte. The application of pattern recognition to the simultaneous responses of different microsensors enables the identification and quantification of multiple analytes with a small array. Maximum materials diversity is the surest means to create an effective array for many analytes, but using a single material family simplifies coating development. Here the authors report the successful combination of an array of six dendrimer films with mass-sensitive SAW (surface acoustic wave) sensors to correctly identify 18 organic analytes over wide concentration ranges, with 99.5% accuracy. The set of materials for the array is selected and the results evaluated using Sandia`s Visual-Empirical Region of Influence (VERI) pattern recognition (PR) technique. The authors evaluated eight dendrimer films and one self-assembled monolayer (SAM) as potential SAW array coatings. The 18 organic analytes they examined were: cyclohexane, n-hexane, i-octane, kerosene, benzene, toluene, chlorobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, methanol, n-propanol, pinacolyl alcohol, acetone, methyl isobutyl ketone, dimethylmethylphosphate, diisopropylmethylphosphonate, tributylphosphate, and water.

Chemical-Mechanical-Polishing (CMP), first used as a planarization technology in the manufacture of multi-level metal interconnects for high-density Integrated Circuits (IC), is readily adapted as an enabling technology in MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) fabrication, particularly polysilicon surface micromachining. The authors have demonstrated that CMP enhances the design and manufacturability of MEMS devices by eliminating several photolithographic definition and film etch issues generated by severe topography. In addition, CMP planarization readily allows multi-level polysilicon structures comprised of 4- or more levels of polysilicon, eliminates design compromise generated by non-planar topography, and provides an avenue for integrating different process technologies. A recent investigation has also shown that CMP is a valuable tool for assuring acceptable optical flatness of micro-optical components such as micromirrors. Examples of these enhancements include: an extension of polysilicon surface-micromachining fabrication to a 5-level technology, a method of monolithic integration of electronics and MEMS, and optically flat micromirrors.

The declining state of the Russian military and precarious Russian economic condition will give the US considerable advantages at the START III bargaining table. Taking the US-RF asymmetries into account, this paper discusses a menu of START III measures the US could ask for, and measures it could offer in return, in attempting to negotiate an equitable treaty. Measures the US might seek in a START III treaty include: further reductions in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, irreversibility of reductions through warhead dismantlement; beginning to bring theater nuclear weapons under mutual control, and increased transparency into the Russian nuclear weapons complex. The US may, however, wish to apply its bargaining advantages to attempting to achieve the first steps toward two long-range goals that would enhance US security: bringing theater nuclear weapons into the US-RF arms control arena, and increasing transparency into the Russian nuclear weapons complex. In exchange for measures relating to these objectives, the US might consider offering to Russia: Further strategic weapons reductions approaching levels at which the Russians believe they could maintain a degree of parity with the US; Measures to decrease the large disparities in potential deliver-system uploading capabilities that appear likely under current START II/START III scenarios; and Financial assistance in achieving START II/START III reductions as rapidly as is technically possible.

This paper presents an overview of the issues associated with applying a domain-decomposition message-passing paradigm to the parallel implementation of both explicit and semi-implicit projection algorithms. The use of an element-based domain decomposition with an efficient solution strategy for the pressure field is shown to yield a scalable, parallel solution method capable of treating complex flow problems where high-resolution grids are required. In addition, the use of an SSOR or Jacobi preconditioned conjugate gradient solver with an A-conjugate projection reduces the computational time for the solution of the pressure field, and yields parallel efficiencies above 80% for computations with O(250) elements per processor. The parallel projection solver is verified using a series of 2-D and 3-D benchmarks designed to evaluate time-accurate flow solution methods. Finally, the extension of the projection algorithm to reacting flows is demonstrated for a time-dependent vortex-shedding problem.

The ability to make in-situ performance measurements of MEMS operating at high speeds has been demonstrated using a new image analysis system. Significant improvements in performance and reliability have directly resulted from the use of this system.

Despite evidence of significant management contributions to the causes of major accidents, recent events at Millstone Nuclear Power Station in the US and Ontario Hydro in Canada might lead one to conclude that the significance of safety culture, and the role of management in developing and maintaining an appropriate safety culture, is either not being understood or not being taken serious as integral to the safe operation of some complex, high-reliability operations. It is the purpose of this paper to address four aspects of management that are particularly important to safety culture, and to illustrate how development of an appropriate safety culture is more a matter of common sense than rocket science.

Emergent technologies often suffer from a lack of an installed manufacturing base and an obvious dominant manufacturing technique. Firms which base their search for competitive advantage on emergent disruptive technologies must make hard production choices and endure major manufacturing discontinuities. The authors as well as many other firms, are now facing these challenges with the embrace of microsystems technologies. They add to the literature by providing a set of criteria for firms investing in emergent disruptive technologies. Sandia has long been associated as a pioneer in the development of new manufacturing techniques. Microsystems is just the current in a long line of manufacturing technologies that have been considered for mission critical system applications. The authors as well as others, have had to make the hard choice of investing in specific microsystems manufacturing techniques. Important considerations in the technique choice include: the existing internal manufacturing bases, commonality with existing commercial manufacturing infrastructure, current and projected critical performance characteristics, learning curves, the promise to add new but un-thought-of functionally to existing systems, and the anticipated ability to qualify devices built from the technique for mission critical applications.

For many modern day portable electronic applications, low power high speed devices have become very desirable. Very high values of f{sub T} and f{sub MAX} have been reported with InGaAs/InP heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), but only under high bias and high current level operating conditions. An InGaAs/InP ultra-lowpower HBT with f{sub MAX} greater than 10 GHz operating at less than 20 {micro}A has been reported for the first time in this work. The results are obtained on a 2.5 x 5 {micro}m{sup 2} device, corresponding to less than 150 A/cm{sup 2} of current density. These are the lowest current levels at which f{sub MAX} {ge} 10 GHz has been reported.

In the past, most defense microelectronics components were packaged in ceramic, hermetic enclosures. PEMs are not hermetic because the plastic molding compounds are permeable to moisture. This lack of hermeticity creates an unknown liability, especially with respect to corrosion of the metallization features. This potential liability must be addressed to ensure long-term reliability of these systems is maintained under conditions of long-term dormant storage. However, the corrosion process is difficult to monitor because it occurs under the encapsulating plastic and is therefore not visible. The authors have developed techniques that allow them to study corrosion of Al bondpads and traces under relevant atmospheric corrosion conditions. The cornerstone of this capability is the ATC 2.6, a microelectronic test device designed at Sandia National Laboratories. Corrosion tests were performed by exposing test chips to aggressive environments. The electrical response of the ATC indicated an increase in bondpad resistance with exposure time. Note that the change in resistance is not uniform from one bondpad to another. This illustrates the stochastic nature of the corrosion process. The change in resistance correlated with visual observation of corrosion of the bondpads on the unencapsulated test chips.

Multispectral image analysis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data has been performed using an empirically-derived clustering algorithm. This algorithm groups image pixels into distinct classes which exhibit similar response in the T{sub 2} 1st and 2nd-echo, and T{sub 1} (with ad without gadolinium) MRI images. The grouping is performed in an n-dimensional mathematical space; the n-dimensional volumes bounding each class define each specific tissue type. The classification results are rendered again in real-space by colored-coding each grouped class of pixels (associated with differing tissue types). This classification method is especially well suited for class volumes with complex boundary shapes, and is also expected to robustly detect abnormal tissue classes. The classification process is demonstrated using a three dimensional data set of MRI scans of a human brain tumor.

Researchers at the National Wind Technology Center have identified a need to acquire data on the rotor of an operating wind turbine at precisely the same time as other data is acquired on the ground or on a non-rotating part of the wind turbine. The researchers will analyze that combined data with statistical and correlation techniques to clearly establish phase information and loading paths and insights into the structural loading of wind turbines. A data acquisition unit has been developed to acquire the data from the rotating system at precise universal times specified by the user. The unit utilizes commercial data acquisition hardware, spread-spectrum radio modems, and a Global Positioning Satellite receiver as well as a custom-built programmable logic device. A prototype of the system is now operational, and initial field deployment is anticipated this summer.

A specialized hyperspectral imager has been developed that preprocesses the spectra from an image before the light reaches the detectors. This "optical computer" does not allow the flexibility of digital post-processing. However, the processing is done in real time and the system can examine = 2 x 10{sup 6} scene pixels/sec. Therefore, outdoors it could search for pollutants, vegetation types, minerals, or man-made objects. On a high- speed production line it could identify defects in sheet products like plastic wrap or film, or on painted or plastic parts. ISIS is a line scan imager. A spectrally dispersed slit image is projected on a Spatial Light Modulator. The SLM is programmed to take the inner product of the spectral intensity vector and a spectral basis vector. The SLM directs the positive and negative parts of the inner product to different linear detector arrays so the signal difference equals the inner product. We envision a system with one telescope and =4 SLMS.

Engineered Surety Using the Risk Equation (EnSURE) is a new approach being developed by Sandia National Laboratories for determining and mitigating risk. The EnSURE approach is based on the risk equation, which can be defined by the following equation: R = (Pa)(1-Pe)(C). Where R is risk, Pa is the likelihood of attack, Pe is the system effectiveness and C is the consequence. EnSURE considers each of the components of risk to help in assessing surety (e.g. security, safety, environmental) and providing for the most cost-effective ways to reduce risk. EnSURE is intended to help in evaluating and reducing the risk from either man-caused or natural events. It will help the decision-makers identify possible targets, evaluate the consequences of an event, assess the risk based on the threat and the existing conditions and then help in the application of mitigating measures. EnSURE is in the development stages. It builds on existing and ongoing development activities at Sandia, as well as the considerable work done in the fields of consequence analysis, risk analysis and intelligence. The components of EnSURE include consequences, constraints, threat, target/goal identification, facility/process characterization, evaluation and analysis, system improvement, and decision making. This paper provides a brief description of EnSURE.

This contribution describes three interoperability scenarios for the ATM Security Message Exchange (SME) protocol. These scenarios include network-wide signaling support for the Security Services Information Element, partial signaling support wherethe SSIE is only supported in private or workgroup ATM networks, and the case where the SSIE is nonsupported by any network elements (exceptthosethat implement security services). Explanatory text is proposed for inclusion infection 2.3 of the ATM Security Specification, Version 1.0.

Department of Energy and Defense Programs systems are becoming increasingly reliant on the use of optical technologies that must perform under a range of ionizing radiation environments. In particular, the radiation response of materials under consideration for applications in direct optical initiation (D.O.I.) schemes must be well characterized. In this report, transient radiation effects observed in a KD*P crystal are characterized. Under gamma exposure with 2 MeV photons in a 20--30 nsec pulse, the authors observe induced absorption at 1.06 {micro}m that causes a peak decrease in overall sample transmittance of only 10%. This induced loss is seen to recover fully within the first 30 {micro}sec.

Department of Energy and Defense Programs systems are becoming increasingly reliant on the use of optical technologies that must perform under a range of ionizing radiation environments. In particular, the radiation response of materials under consideration for applications in direct optical initiation (D.O.I.) schemes must be well characterized. In this report, transient radiation effects observed in Schott filter glass S-7010 are characterized. Under gamma exposure with 2 MeV photons in a 20--30 nsec pulse, the authors observe strong initial induced fluorescence in the red region of the spectrum followed by significant induced absorption over the same spectral region. Peak induced absorption coefficients of 0.113 cm{sup {minus}1} and 0.088 cm{sup {minus}1} were calculated at 800 nm and 660 nm respectively.

From July 29 to 31, 1997, the Surety Assessment Center at Sandia National Laboratories hosted the second international symposium on High Consequence Operations Safety, HCOSSII. The two and one-half day symposium allowed participants to share strategies, methodologies, and experiences in high consequence engineering and system design. The symposium addressed organizational influences on high consequence safety, assessment and analysis processes, lessons-learned from high consequence events, human factors in safety, and software safety. A special session at the end of the symposium featured a presentation by Federal Nuclear Center--All Russian Research Institute of Experimental Physics and Sandia National Laboratories personnel on their joint efforts to establish the International Surety Center for Energy Intensive and High Consequence Systems and Infrastructures.

Often the drilling of an oil well is followed by a logging process to characterize the region immediately surrounding the well bore. The electromagnetic (EM) induction tool, which provides the formation resistivity, is among the most frequently run logs. A preliminary study has been conducted to analyze the feasibility of three dimensional (3D) electromagnetic (EM) imaging from a single borehole. The logging tool consists of a vertical magnetic dipole source and multiple 3 component magnetic field receivers offset at different distances from the source. Synthetic data calculated with a 3D finite difference code demonstrate that the phase of the horizontal magnetic fields provides the critical information on the three dimensionality of the medium. A 3D inversion algorithm is then employed to demonstrate the plausibility of 3D inversion using 3 component magnetic field data. Finally, problems associated with introducing biased noise into the horizontal components of the field through misalignment of the logging tool is discussed.

The United States conducted over 100 atmospheric nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site from 1951 through 1962. Some of the earliest tests caused unexpected damage, primarily broken glass and cracked plaster, in Las Vegas and other surrounding communities. To address this problem, Sandia initiated a program to monitor and predict the pressure waves around NTS. Infrasound recording systems were developed, then field for all tests beginning with Operation Buster in October 1951. Investigators soon discovered that near-surface temperature inversions and wind profiles caused the damaging pressures in Las Vegas. A typical test was recorded at about a dozen stations from the Control Point on NTS to as far away as Pasadena, CA. In addition, some tests in the South Pacific were monitored, as well as numerous chemical explosions. Strip charts recorded signals in the frequency band from 0.05 to 30 Hz, and the paper tapes were achieved at Sandia in the early 1970s. The NTS events ranged in yield from below 1 ton to 74 kilotons; source altitudes varied from near ground level (including some cratering experiments) to as high as 11 km. The resulting data contain a wealth of information on the source function, yield scaling and regional propagation of infrasound signals from atmospheric explosions. The renewed interest in infrasonic monitoring for CTBT verification has prompted the authors to exhume some of the archived records. The authors plan to digitize the signals from several tests and evaluate their applicability to CTBT issues. In addition, they will collect any existing parametric measurements for these records (arrival times, amplitudes, etc.). All data will be converted to CSS database format and made available to the research community. If appropriate, the resulting information could also be included in the Knowledge Base under development for CTBT monitoring.

The US Department of Energy is funding the development of the Multi-spectral Thermal Imager (MTI), a satellite-based multi-spectral (MS) thermal imaging sensor scheduled for launch in October 1999. MTI is a research and development (R and D) platform to test the applicability of multispectral and thermal imaging technology for detecting and monitoring signs of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. During its three-year mission, MTI will periodically record images of participating government, industrial and natural sites in fifteen visible and infrared spectral bands to provide a variety of image data associated with weapons production activities. The MTI satellite will have spatial resolution in the visible bands that is five times better than LANDSAT TM in each dimension and will have five thermal bands. In this work, the authors quantify the separability between specific materials and the natural background by applying Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) analysis to the residual errors from a linear unmixing. The authors apply the ROC analysis to quantify performance of the MTI. They describe the MTI imager and simulate its data by filtering HYDICE hyperspectral imagery both spatially and spectrally and by introducing atmospheric effects corresponding to the MTI satellite altitude. They compare and contrast the individual effects on performance of spectral resolution, spatial resolution, atmospheric corrections, and varying atmospheric conditions.

A new failure analysis technique has been developed for backside and frontside localization of open and shorted interconnections on ICs. This scanning optical microscopy technique takes advantage of the interactions between IC defects and localized heating using a focused infrared laser ({lambda} = 1,340 nm). Images are produced by monitoring the voltage changes across a constant current supply used to power the IC as the laser beam is scanned across the sample. The method utilizes the Seebeck Effect to localize open interconnections and Thermally-Induced Voltage Alteration (TIVA) to detects shorts. The interaction physics describing the signal generation process and several examples demonstrating the localization of opens and shorts are described. Operational guidelines and limitations are also discussed.

The near eutectic 60Sn-40Pb alloy is the most commonly used solder for electrical interconnections in electronic packages. This alloy has a number of processing advantages (suitable melting point of 183 C and good wetting behavior). However, under conditions of cyclic strain and temperature (thermomechanical fatigue), the microstructure of this alloy undergoes a heterogeneous coarsening and failure process that makes the prediction of solder joint lifetime complex. A viscoplastic constitutive model for solder with an internal state variable that tracks microstructural evolution is currently under development. This constitutive model was implemented in to several finite element codes. With this computational capability, the thermomechanical response of solder interconnects, including microstructural evolution, can be predicted. This capability was applied to predict the thermomechanical response of a ball grid array (BGA) solder interconnect. BGAs with both homogeneous and heterogeneous initial microstructures were evaluated. In this paper, the constitutive model used to describe the solder will first be briefly discussed. The results of computational studies to determine the thermomechanical response of BGA solder interconnects will then be presented.

Radiation detectors have been included in several remote monitoring field trial systems to date. The present study considers detectors at Embalse, Argentina, and Oarai, Japan. At Embalse four gamma detectors have been operating in the instrumentation tubes of spent fuel storage silos for up to three years. Except for minor fluctuations, three of the detectors have operated normally. One of the detectors appears never to have operated correctly. At Oarai two gamma detectors have been monitoring a spent-fuel transfer hatch for over 18 months. These detectors have operated normally throughout the period, although one shows occasional noise spikes.

Materials Protection, Control and Accounting (MPC and A) equipment upgrades are complete at the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP), a site that has significant quantities of weapons-potential nuclear materials. Cooperative work was initiated at this Moscow facility as a part of the US-Russian program to upgrade MPC and A systems. An initial site visit and assessment were conducted in September 1996 to establish communication between ITEP, the US Department of Energy (DOE), and participating US National Laboratories. Subsequently, an agreement was reached to develop two master plans for MPC and A upgrades. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) assisted in developing a plan for Material Control and Accounting (MC and A) upgrades, and Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) assisted in developing a plan for Physical Protection System (PPS) upgrades. The MC and A plan included MC and A training, a mass measurement program, nondestructive assay instrumentation, item identification (bar coding), physical inventory taking, portal and hand-held nuclear material monitors, and a nuclear materials accounting system. The PPS plan included basic PPS design training, Central Alarm Station (CAS) relocation and equipment upgrades, a site and critical-building access control system, intrusion detection, alarm assessment, and guard force communications.

The US Department of Energy (DOE) and the Russian Special Scientific and Production State Enterprise Eleron have teamed to lead a project to enhance the overall security of Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy (MINATOM) transportation of Special Nuclear Material (SNM) shipments. The effort is called the Railcar Transportation Security Project and is part of the overall DOE Material Protection, Control, and Accounting (MPC and A) program addressing the enhancement of nuclear material control, accounting, and physical protection for Russian SNM. The goal of this MPC and A project is to significantly increase the security of Russian MINATOM highly enriched SNM rail shipments. To accomplish this, the MPC and A Railcar Transportation Security program will provide an enhanced, yet cost effective, railcar transportation security system. The system incorporates a balance between the traditional detection, communications, delay, and response security elements to significantly improve the security of MINATOM SNM shipments. The strategy of this program is to use rapid upgrades to implement mature security technologies as quickly as possible. The rapid upgrades emphasize rapidly deployable delay elements, enhanced radio communications, and intrusion detection and surveillance. Upgraded railcars have begun operation during FY98. Subsequent upgrades will build upon the rapid upgrades and eventually be integrated into a final deployed system configuration. This paper provides an overview of the program, with a summary of performance of the deployed railcars.

A combined engineering and geochemistry approach is recommended for the stabilization of waste in decommissioned tanks and contaminated soils at the AX Tank Farm, Hanford, WA. A two-part strategy of desiccation and gettering is proposed for treatment of the in-tank residual wastes. Dry portland cement and/or fly ash are suggested as an effective and low-cost desiccant for wicking excess moisture from the upper waste layer. Getters work by either ion exchange or phase precipitation to reduce radionuclide concentrations in solution. The authors recommend the use of specific natural and man-made compounds, appropriately proportioned to the unique inventory of each tank. A filler design consisting of multilayered cementitous grout with interlayered sealant horizons should serve to maintain tank integrity and minimize fluid transport to the residual waste form. External tank soil contamination is best mitigated by placement of grouted skirts under and around each tank, together with installation of a cone-shaped permeable reactive barrier beneath the entire tank farm. Actinide release rates are calculated from four tank closure scenarios ranging from no action to a comprehensive stabilization treatment plan (desiccant/getters/grouting/RCRA cap). Although preliminary, these calculations indicate significant reductions in the potential for actinide transport as compared to the no-treatment option.

A database has been created for use with the Jacobs-Cowperthwaite-Zwisler-3 equation-of-state (JCZ3-EOS) to determine thermochemical equilibrium for detonation and expansion states of energetic materials. The JCZ3-EOS uses the exponential 6 intermolecular potential function to describe interactions between molecules. All product species are characterized by r*, the radius of the minimum pair potential energy, and {var_epsilon}/k, the well depth energy normalized by Boltzmann`s constant. These parameters constitute the JCZS (S for Sandia) EOS database describing 750 gases (including all the gases in the JANNAF tables), and have been obtained by using Lennard-Jones potential parameters, a corresponding states theory, pure liquid shock Hugoniot data, and fit values using an empirical EOS. This database can be used with the CHEETAH 1.40 or CHEETAH 2.0 interface to the TIGER computer program that predicts the equilibrium state of gas- and condensed-phase product species. The large JCZS-EOS database permits intermolecular potential based equilibrium calculations of energetic materials with complex elemental composition.

The ability to locate an individual atom on a surface, remove it in a controlled fashion, and determine its chemical identity makes the atom-probe field-ion microscope an extremely powerful tool for the analysis of solid surfaces. By itself, the field ion microscope has contributed significantly to our understanding of surface atomic structure, single-atom surface diffusion, and the detailed interactions that occur between atoms and defects on surfaces.1 When used in combination with the atom-probe mass spectrometer there have been several additional areas within the traditional definition of "surface science"where the chemical identification capability of the atom probe has led to new insights. In this paper these applications are reviewed focusing on two specific areas: surface segregation in intermetallic alloys and chemical reactions on metal surfaces. The equilibrium distribution of component species in the near surface region of solid solution alloy may be different from the distribution in the bulk.

The time-averaged, daylight fractional statistical cloud coverages as a function of cloud optical thickness and selected values of cloud transmission were determined for various geographic areas using D1 data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP). The regions of interest chosen for this report are: global earth, global sea, global land, global coast, and the six 30{degree}-latitude bands over sea, over land, and over coast with longitude 0{degree}--360{degree}. This statistical information is deduced from data determined from satellite measurements of terrestrial, atmospheric and cloud properties by the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project. In particular the results are based on the ISCCP D1 data base.

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is under development by the US Department of Energy (DOE) for the geologic disposal of transuranic (TRU) waste that has been generated at government defense installations in the United States. The WIPP is located in an area of low population density in southeastern New Mexico. Waste disposal will take place in excavated chambers in a bedded salt formation approximately 655 m below the land surface. This presentation describes a performance assessment (PA) carried out at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) to support the Compliance Certification Application (CCA) made by the DOE to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in October, 1996, for the certification of the WIPP for the disposal of TRU waste. Based on the CCA supported by the PA described in this presentation, the EPA has issued a preliminary decision to certify the WIPP for the disposal of TRU waste. At present (April 1998), it appears likely that the WIPP will be in operation by the end of 1998.

The appropriate treatment of uncertainty is now widely recognized as an essential component of performance assessments (PAs) for complex systems. When viewed at a high-level, the uncertainty in such analyses can typically be partitioned into two types: (1) stochastic uncertainty, which arises because the system can behave in many different ways and is thus a property of the system itself, and (2) subjective uncertainty, which arises from a lack of knowledge about quantities that are believed to have (or, at least, are assumed to have) fixed values and is thus a property of the analysts carrying out the study. The 1996 PA for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) carried out at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) will be used to illustrate the treatment of these two types of uncertainty in a real analysis. In particular, this PA supported a compliance certification application (CCA) by the US Department of Energy (DOE) to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the certification of the WIPP for the geologic disposal of transuranic waste. Insights on the conceptual and computational structure of PAs for complex systems gained from these and other analyses are being incorporated into a new software system under development at SNL to facilitate the performance of analyses that maintain a separation between stochastic and subjective uncertainty.

Cost or performance targets for new bit technologies can be established with the aid of a drilling cost model. In this paper the authors make simplifying assumptions in a detailed drilling cost model that reduce the comparison of two technologies to a linear function of relative cost and performance parameters. This simple model, or analysis tool, is not intended to provide absolute well cost but is intended to compare the relative costs of different methods or technologies to accomplish the same drilling task. Comparing the simplified model to the detailed well cost model shows that the simple linear cost model provides a very efficient tool for screening certain new drilling methods, techniques, and technologies based on economic value. This tool can be used to divide the space defined by the set of parameters: bit cost, bit life, rate of penetration, and operational cost into two areas with a linear boundary. The set of all the operating points in one area will result in an economic advantage in drilling the well with the new technology, while any set of operating points in the other area indicates that any economic advantage is either questionable or does not exist. In addition, examining the model results can develop insights into the economics associated with bit performance, life, and cost. This paper includes development of the model, examples of employing the model to develop should cost or should perform goals for new bit technologies, a discussion of the economic insights in terms of bit cost and performance, and an illustration of the consequences when the basic assumptions are violated.

This report documents the history of the major buildings in Sandia National Laboratories` Technical Area II. It was prepared in support of the Department of Energy`s compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. Technical Area II was designed and constructed in 1948 specifically for the final assembly of the non-nuclear components of nuclear weapons, and was the primary site conducting such assembly until 1952. Both the architecture and location of the oldest buildings in the area reflect their original purpose. Assembly activities continued in Area II from 1952 to 1957, but the major responsibility for this work shifted to other sites in the Atomic Energy Commission`s integrated contractor complex. Gradually, additional buildings were constructed and the original buildings were modified. After 1960, the Area`s primary purpose was the research and testing of high-explosive components for nuclear weapons. In 1994, Sandia constructed new facilities for work on high-explosive components outside of the original Area II diamond-shaped parcel. Most of the buildings in the area are vacant and Sandia has no plans to use them. They are proposed for decontamination and demolition as funding becomes available.

This work develops some practical approximations needed to simulate a high plasma density volume bounded by walls made of dielectrics or metals which may be either biased or floating in potential. Solving Poisson`s equation in both the high-density bulk and the sheath region poses a difficult computational problem due to the large electron plasma frequency. A common approximation is to assume the electric field is computed in the ambipolar approximation in the bulk and to couple this to a sheath model at the boundaries. Unfortunately, this treatment is not appropriate when some surfaces are biased with respect to others and a net current is present within the plasma. This report develops some ideas on the application of quasi-static external electric fields to plasmas and the self-consistent treatment of boundary conditions at the surfaces. These constitute a generalization of Ohm`s law for a plasma body that entails solving for the internal fields within the plasma and the potential drop and currents through the sheaths surrounding the plasma.

The Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology (PVMaT) project is a partnership between the US government (through the US Department of Energy [DOE]) and the PV industry. Part of its purpose is to conduct manufacturing technology research and development to address the issues and opportunities identified by industry to advance photovoltaic (PV) systems and components. The project was initiated in 1990 and has been conducted in several phases to support the evolution of PV industrial manufacturing technology. Early phases of the project stressed PV module manufacturing. Starting with Phase 4A and continuing in Phase 5A, the goals were broadened to include improvement of component efficiency, energy storage and manufacturing and system or component integration to bring together all elements for a PV product. This paper summarizes PV manufacturers` accomplishments in components, system integration, and alternative manufacturing methods. Their approaches have resulted in improved hardware and PV system performance, better system compatibility, and new system capabilities. Results include new products such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL)-listed AC PV modules, modular inverters, and advanced inverter designs that use readily available and standard components. Work planned in Phase 5A1 includes integrated residential and commercial roof-top systems, PV systems with energy storage, and 300-Wac to 4-kWac inverters.

The Photovoltaic Systems Assistance Center (PVSAC) of Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has been supporting the development and implementation of off-grid PV hybrid power systems for many years. Technical support has included: refining hardware; understanding system design techniques; obtaining operation and maintenance data; studying use of energy produced. As part of the program, the PVSAC has provided technical expertise on hybrid systems to many federal agencies including the National Park Service, the Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the Department of Defense. The goal of these partnerships has been to ensure that reliable and safe PV hybrid systems are specified and procured. At present, a critical review of performance and costs of several representative PV hybrid systems is underway. This paper presents a summary of the performance and economical analyses conducted on three PV hybrid systems.

In the Phase 2 project, Abacus Controls Inc. did research and development of hybrid systems that combine the energy sources from photovoltaics, batteries, and diesel-generators and demonstrated that they are economically feasible for small power plants in many parts of the world. The Trimode Power Processor reduces the fuel consumption of the diesel-generator to its minimum by presenting itself as the perfect electrical load to the generator. A 30-kW three-phase unit was tested at Sandia National Laboratories to prove its worthiness in actual field conditions. The use of photovoltaics at remote locations where reliability of supply requires a diesel-generator will lower costs to operate by reducing the run time of the diesel generator. The numerous benefits include longer times between maintenance for the diesel engine and better power quality from the generator. 32 figs.

This report summarizes the results of a study to develop and evaluate low temperature glass sealing technologies for photovoltaic applications. This work was done as part of Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) No. SC95/01408. The sealing technologies evaluated included low melting temperature glass frits and solders. Because the glass frit joining required a material with a melting temperature that exceeded the allowable temperature for the active elements on the photovoltaic panels a localized heating scheme was required for sealing the perimeter of the glass panels. Thermal and stress modeling were conducted to identify the feasibility of this approach and to test strategies designed to minimize heating of the glass panel away from its perimeter. Hardware to locally heat the glass panels during glass frit joining was designed, fabricated, and successfully tested. The same hardware could be used to seal the glass panels using the low temperature solders. Solder adhesion to the glass required metal coating of the glass. The adhesion strength of the solder was dependent on the surface finish of the glass. Strategies for improving the polyisobutylene (PIB) adhesive currently being used to seal the panels and the use of Parylene coatings as a protective sealant deposited on the photovoltaic elements were also investigated. Starting points for further work are included.

This study was initiated when a new type of breakdown occurred in a high voltage experimental test assembly. An anomalous current pulse was observed, which indicated partial discharges, some leading to total breakdowns. High voltage insulator defects are shown along with their effect on the electrostatic fields in the breakdown region. OPERA electromagnetic field modeling software is used to calculate the fields and present a cause for the discharge. Several design modifications are investigated and one of the simplest resulted in a 25% decrease in the field at the discharge surface.

This paper proposes a definition for a Non-Islanding Inverter. This paper also presents methods that can be used to implement such an inverter, along with references to prior work on the subject. Justification for the definition is provided on both a theoretical basis and results from tests conducted at Sandia National Laboratories and Ascension Technology, Inc.

A suite of Probabilistic Risk Assessment Compatible Fire Models (RACFMs) has been developed to represent the hazard posed by a pool fire to weapon systems transported on the B52-H aircraft. These models represent both stand-off (i.e., the weapon system is outside of the flame zone but exposed to the radiant heat load from fire) and fully-engulfing scenarios (i.e., the object is fully covered by flames). The approach taken in developing the RACFMs for both scenarios was to consolidate, reconcile, and apply data and knowledge from all available resources including: data and correlations from the literature, data from an extensive full-scale fire test program at the Naval Air Warfare Center (NAWC) at China Lake, and results from a fire field model (VULCAN). In the past, a single, effective temperature, T{sub f}, was used to represent the fire. The heat flux to an object exposed to a fire was estimated using the relationship for black body radiation, {sigma}T{sub f}{sup 4}. Significant improvements have been made by employing the present approach which accounts for the presence of temperature distributions in fully-engulfing fires, and uses best available correlations to estimate heat fluxes in stand-off scenarios.

The Regulations and Training Projects are part of the US-Russian Federation Materials Protection, Control, and Accounting (MPC&A) cooperative program to protect Russian Navy Fuels. This paper describes the general status of the projects, progress achieved to date, and long-term plans for further work in producing regulatory documents and training to support this ewffort. The regulatory development will result in a document set that will include general requirements and rules for the Russian Navy MPC&A as well as specific instructions for operation and maintenance of each facility. The goals of the training program are to instill in managers a culture of sustainable commitment to MPC&A through the understanding of its principles and philosophies. In addition, the training program will help ensure that upgrades are effectively utilized and maintained by training operators and maintenance personnel in MPC&A principles as well in as the detailed operations of the systems.

This paper describes the Active-Bridge Oscillator (ABO), a new concept in high-stability oscillator design. The ABO is ab ridge-type oscillator design that is easly to design and overcomes many of the operational and design difficulties associated with standard bridge oscillator designs. The ABO will oscillate with a very stable output amplitude over a wide range of operating conditions without the use of an automatic-level-control (ALC). A standard bridge oscillator design requires an ALC to maintain the desired amplitude of oscillation. for this and other reasons, bridge oscilaltors are not used in mainstream designs. Bridge oscillators are generally relegated to relatively low-volume, high-performance applications. The Colpitts and Pierce designs are the most popular oscillators but are typically less stable than a bridge-type oscillator.

Smoke from plastics can cause immediate problems in electrical equipment in the form of shorting and increased leakage currents, as well as long-term corrosion (metal loss). The short-term problems can be especially serious for critical control instrumentation such as that found in nuclear reactors or telecommunications systems. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission and Sandia National Laboratories are sponsoring a program to determine the modes and probabilities of digital equipment failure during exposure to smoke and up to 24 hours after the exposure. Early tests on computer systems have shown that the most common immediate problems are temporary and are likely to be caused by increased leakage currents. High-voltage circuits are especially vulnerable since the charged particles in smoke are drawn to those surfaces. To study failure probabilities, smoke exposure tests with real-time measurements will be carried out to determine how the electrical properties of the environment are affected by smoke concentration and content. Digital communication cable will be included in the tests because temporary shorts that cannot be detected through dc measurements may cause interruptions in communications between computers. The reaction of the equipment to changed electrical properties of the environment will be modeled. Equipment that can be used for testing and modeling is being solicited.

The sequential manner in which materials and processes for a manufactured product are selected is inherently less than optimal. Designers` tendency to choose processes and materials with which they are familiar exacerbate this problem. A method for concurrent selection of materials and a joining process based on product requirements using a knowledge-based, constraint satisfaction approach is presented.

A new approach to modeling solar thermal electric plants using the TRNSYS simulation environment is discussed. The TRNSYS environment offers many advantages over currently used tools, including the option to more easily study the hybrid solar/fossil plant configurations that have been proposed to facilitate market penetration of solar thermal technologies. A component library developed for Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, and solar system modeling is presented. A comparison between KPRO and TRNSYS results for a simple Rankine cycle show excellent correlation.

At the request of US sponsors Spencer Management Associates (SMA) and Sun{diamond}Lab, China`s Center for Renewable Energy Development and former Ministry of Electric Power conducted an initial appraisal of the issues involved with developing China`s first solar thermal electric power plant in the sunbelt regions of Tibet or Xinjiang provinces. The appraisal concerns development of a large-scale, grid-connected solar trough or tower project capable of producing 30 or more megawatts of electricity. Several of the findings suggest that Tibet could be a niche market for solar thermal power because a solar plant may be the low-cost option relative to other methods of generating electricity. China has studied the concept of a solar thermal power plant for quite some time. In 1992, it completed a pre-feasibility study for a SEGS-type parabolic trough plant with the aid of Israel`s United Development Limited. Because the findings were positive, both parties agreed to conduct a full-scale feasibility study. However, due to funding constraints, the study was postponed. Most recently, Sun{diamond}Lab and SMA asked China to broaden the analysis to include tower as well as trough concepts. The findings of this most recent investigation completed i November of 1997, are the subject of this paper. The main conclusions of all studies conducted to date suggest that a region in the proximity of Lhasa, Tibet, offers the best near-term opportunity within China. The opportunities for solar thermal power plants in other regions of China were also investigated.

Density functional theories (DFT) for inhomogeneous fluids have been used profitably to study the structure of fluids near surfaces, and to predict solvation forces, adsorption isotherm, and a variety of surface induced phase transitions. However, in nearly all cases, only geometries with 2 symmetry planes (e.g. fluid near a uniform planar interface or a fluid in a uniform cylindrical pore) have been considered. In this paper the authors discuss the generalization of the DFT to cases with either one or no symmetry planes. They present their computational approach, as well as results for charged cylindrical polyelectrolytes and planar surfaces with inhomogeneous chemistry.

The dual control volume grand canonical molecular dynamics (DCV-GCMD) method, designed to enable the dynamic simulation of a system with a steady state chemical potential gradient is first briefly reviewed. A new, novel implementation of the method which enables the establishment of a steady state chemical potential gradient in a multicomponent system without having to insert or delete one of the components is then presented and discussed.

A quick look at the geothermal industry shows a small industry producing about $1 billion in electric sales annually. The industry is becoming older and in need of new innovative solutions to instrumentation problems. A quick look at problem areas is given along with basic instrumentation requirements. The focus of instrumentation is on high temperature electronics.

The desire to reduce the time and cost of design engineering on new components or to validate existing designs in new applications is stimulating the development of modeling and simulation tools. The authors are applying a model-based design approach to low and moderate rate versions of the Li/SOCl{sub 2} D-size cell with success. Three types of models are being constructed and integrated to achieve maximum capability and flexibility in the final simulation tool. A phenomenology based electrochemical model links performance and the cell design, chemical processes, and material properties. An artificial neural network model improves computational efficiency and fills gaps in the simulation capability when fundamental cell parameters are too difficult to measure or the forms of the physical relationships are not understood. Finally, a PSpice-based model provides a simple way to test the cell under realistic electrical circuit conditions. Integration of these three parts allows a complete link to be made between fundamental battery design characteristics and the performance of the rest of the electrical subsystem.

At Sandia National Laboratories the authors are evaluating the energy and power characteristics of commercially available Li-ion cells. Cells of several different sizes (20 Ah, 1.1 Ah, 0.750 Ah and {approximately}0.5 Ah) and geometries (cylindrical and prismatic) from several manufacturers were studied. The cells were pulsed discharged at increasing currents (50 mA to 1,000 mA) over a range of temperatures (+35 C to {minus}40 C) and at different states of charge (4.1 V, open circuit voltage (OCV), fully charged, 3.6 V OCV partially discharged and 3.1 V OCV nearly discharged) and the voltage drop was recorded. The voltage drop was small at ambient and near ambient temperatures indicating that the total cell internal impedance was small under these conditions. However, at {minus} 40 C the voltage drop was significant due to an increase in the cell internal impedance. At a given temperature, the voltage drop increases with decreasing state-of-charge (SOC) or OCV. The cell impedance and other electrochemical properties as a function of temperature and SOC were also measured. The Ragone data indicate that the specific power and specific energy of Li-ion cells of different sizes are comparable and therefore scaling up to {approximately}20 Ah does not affect either the energy or the power.

Sandia National Laboratories has been chosen by the US Department of Energy as the primary domestic source for the production of molybdenum-99, utilizing the Annular Core Research Reactor. The method to be used to produce ⁹⁹Mo through the fission of ²³⁵U in 93% enriched UO₂ is based on the process formerly used by Cintichem, Inc. of Tuxedo, New York. The UO₂ is electroplated in a thin coating to the inside of stainless steel Cintichem targets which will be irradiated in the central region of the reactor core. The proposed on-site storage plan for the unirradiated targets is to store them in a dry, secure compartment similar to a file cabinet. Each cabinet drawer will be initially filled with targets and emptied as targets are removed for irradiation. The main objective of this analysis was to postulate and model a set of incredible accident scenarios beyond the proposed storage plan which would possibly induce criticality with the targets in the safe, and determine the k-effective and its associated standard deviation for these conditions. A parametric analysis was performed using Los Alamos National Laboratory`s MCNP (Monte Carlo Neutral Particle) code, Version 4A.

This report provides an updated set of users` instructions for PRONTO3D. PRONTO3D is a three-dimensional, transient, solid dynamics code for analyzing large deformations of highly nonlinear materials subjected to extremely high strain rates. This Lagrangian finite element program uses an explicit time integration operator to integrate the equations of motion. Eight-node, uniform strain, hexahedral elements and four-node, quadrilateral, uniform strain shells are used in the finite element formulation. An adaptive time step control algorithm is used to improve stability and performance in plasticity problems. Hourglass distortions can be eliminated without disturbing the finite element solution using either the Flanagan-Belytschko hourglass control scheme or an assumed strain hourglass control scheme. All constitutive models in PRONTO3D are cast in an unrotated configuration defined using the rotation determined from the polar decomposition of the deformation gradient. A robust contact algorithm allows for the impact and interaction of deforming contact surfaces of quite general geometry. The Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics method has been embedded into PRONTO3D using the contact algorithm to couple it with the finite element method.

Sandia National Laboratories/New Mexico (SNL/NM) is a research and development facility that generates many highly diverse, low-volume mixed waste streams. Under the Federal Facility Compliance Act, SNL/NM must treat its mixed waste in storage to meet the Land Disposal Restrictions treatment standards. Since 1989, approximately 70 cubic meters (2500 cubic feet) of heterogeneous, poorly characterized and inventoried mixed waste was placed in storage that could not be treated as specified in the SNL/NM Site Treatment Plan. A process was created to sort the legacy waste into sixteen well- defined, properly characterized, and precisely inventoried mixed waste streams (Treatability Groups) and two low-level waste streams ready for treatment or disposal. From June 1995 through September 1996, the entire volume of this stored mixed waste was sorted and inventoried through this process. This process was planned to meet the technical requirements of the sorting operation and to identify and address the hazards this operation presented. The operations were routinely adapted to safely and efficiently handle a variety of waste matrices, hazards, and radiological conditions. This flexibility was accomplished through administrative and physical controls integrated into the sorting operations. Many Department of Energy facilities are currently facing the prospect of sorting, characterizing, and treating a large inventory of mixed waste. The process described in this paper is a proven method for preparing a diverse, heterogeneous mixed waste volume into segregated, characterized, inventoried, and documented waste streams ready for treatment or disposal.

In 1993 Sandia was directed to design containers for the long-term storage and transport of nuclear weapons origin fissile material. This program was undertaken at the direction of the US Department of Energy and in cooperation with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory were tasked with developing the internal fixturing for the contents. The hardware is being supplied by AlliedSignal Federal Manufacturing and Technologies, and the packaging process has been developed at Mason and Hanger Corporation`s Pantex Plant. The unique challenge was to design a container that could be sealed with the fissile material contents; and, anytime during the next 50 years, the container could be transported with only the need for the pre-shipment leak test. This required a rigorous design capable of meeting the long-term storage and transportation requirements. This report addresses the final testing that was undertaken to demonstrate compliance with US radioactive materials transport regulations.

A prototype high frequency tuning fork oscillator has been fabricated and tested in an integrated surface micromachining technology. The amplifier circuitry uses a capacitive current detection method, which offers superior noise performance over previous resistive methods. The prototype device has an output frequency of 1.022 MHz and exhibits a noise floor of {minus}88 dBc/Hz at a distance of 500 Hz from the carrier. The dominant source of frequency instability is the nonlinearity introduced by the use of parallel plate actuation.

The authors attempt to extend their previous efforts towards a reliable control scheme that guarantees a specified degree of reliability for civil engineering structures. Herein, a two degree of freedom system is examined. Covariance control techniques are explored to design a compensator that will provide optimal closed loop performance, while satisfying a constraint on system reliability. It was found for the system under examination that a stable control does not exist that also meets the target reliability level. Alternate formulations continue to be investigated.

This paper summarizes the results of cutting tests performed using an actively damped boring bar to minimize chatter in metal cutting. A commercially available 2 inch diameter boring bar was modified to incorporate PZT stack actuators for controlling tool bending vibrations encountered during metal removal. The extensional motion of the actuators induce bending moments in the host structure through a two-point preloaded mounting scheme. Cutting tests performed at various speeds and depths of cuts on a hardened steel workpiece illustrate the bar`s effectiveness toward eliminating chatter vibrations and improving workpiece surface finish.

The application of physico-chemical phenomena to either increase machinability of hard materials, improve the wear resistance of cutting surfaces, or enhance sintering of particle compacts can have large economic impact on technologies ranging from materials forming processes to oil well drilling. Unfortunately, the broad application of these physico-chemical principles is limited by the authors ability to predict the optimum conditions for a wide variety of materials surfaces. Predictive models must be built upon understanding of the elementary events involved in surface damage and mobility. The authors have developed a new approach to examine the fundamental mechanisms controlling physico-chemical surface stability that combines: (1) atomic-scale control of surface contact forces and displacements under well controlled adsorbate conditions using the Interfacial Force Microscope, (2) atomic-level imaging of surface and near-surface structure and defects using Field Ion Microscopy, and (3) first-principles modeling of the effect of surface stress on adsorbate bonding interactions and the subsequent generation of surface damage. This unique combination of approaches has provided new insights into observed physico-chemical phenomena and provided the basis for developing true predictive models that are needed for wide application of these important new approaches to modifying the surface sensitive properties of materials.

The Single Heater Test (SHT) is a sixteen-month-long heating and cooling experiment begun in August, 1996, located underground within the unsaturated zone near the potential geologic repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. During the 9 month heating phase of the test, roughly 15 m{sup 3} of rock were raised to temperatures exceeding 100 C. In this paper, temperatures measured in sealed boreholes surrounding the heater are compared to temperatures predicted by 3D thermal-hydrologic calculations performed with a finite difference code. Three separate model runs using different values of bulk rock permeability (4 microdarcy to 5.2 darcy) yielded significantly different predicted temperatures and temperature distributions. All the models differ from the data, suggesting that to accurately model the thermal-hydrologic behavior of the SHT, the Equivalent Continuum Model (ECM), the conceptual basis for dealing with the fractured porous medium in the numerical predictions, should be discarded in favor of more sophisticated approaches.

The occurrence of gas in salt mines and caverns has presented some serious problems to facility operators. Salt mines have long experienced sudden, usually unexpected expulsions of gas and salt from a production face, commonly known as outbursts. Outbursts can release over one million cubic feet of methane and fractured salt, and are responsible for the lives of numerous miners and explosions. Equipment, production time, and even entire mines have been lost due to outbursts. An outburst creates a cornucopian shaped hole that can reach heights of several hundred feet. The potential occurrence of outbursts must be factored into mine design and mining methods. In caverns, the occurrence of outbursts and steady infiltration of gas into stored product can effect the quality of the product, particularly over the long-term, and in some cases renders the product unusable as is or difficult to transport. Gas has also been known to collect in the roof traps of caverns resulting in safety and operational concerns. The intent of this paper is to summarize the existing knowledge on gas releases from salt. The compiled information can provide a better understanding of the phenomena and gain insight into the causative mechanisms that, once established, can help mitigate the variety of problems associated with gas releases from salt. Outbursts, as documented in mines, are discussed first. This is followed by a discussion of the relatively slow gas infiltration into stored crude oil, as observed and modeled in the caverns of the US Strategic Petroleum Reserve. A model that predicts outburst pressure kicks in caverns is also discussed.

A cooperative national laboratory/industry research program was initiated in 1994 that improved understanding of the geomechanical processes causing well casing damage during oil production from weak, compactible formations. The program focused on the shallow diatomaceous oil reservoirs located in California`s San Joaquin Valley, and combined analyses of historical field data, experimental determination of rock mechanical behavior, and geomechanical simulation of the reservoir and overburden response to production and injection. Sandia National Laboratories` quasi-static, large-deformation structural mechanics finite element code JAS3D was used to perform the three-dimensional geomechanical simulations. One of the material models implemented in JAS3D to simulate the time-independent inelastic (non-linear) deformation of geomaterials is a generalized version of the Sandler and Rubin cap plasticity model (Sandler and Rubin, 1979). This report documents the experimental rock mechanics data and material cap plasticity models that were derived to describe the Belridge Diatomite reservoir rock at the South Belridge Diatomite Field, Section 33.

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Compliance Certification Application (CCA) Performance Assessment (PA) Parameter Database and its ties to supporting information evolved over the course of two years. When the CCA was submitted to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in October 1996, information such as identification of parameter value or distribution source was documented using processes established by Sandia National Laboratories WIPP Quality Assurance Procedures. Reviewers later requested additional supporting documentation, links to supporting information, and/or clarification for many parameters. This guidebook is designed to document a pathway through the complex parameter process and help delineate flow paths to supporting information for all WIPP CCA parameters. In addition, this report is an aid for understanding how model parameters used in the WIPP CCA were developed and qualified. To trace the source information for a particular parameter, a dual-route system was established. The first route uses information from the Parameter Records Package as it existed when the CCA calculations were run. The second route leads from the EPA Parameter Database to additional supporting information.

The authors performed a series of experiments on the Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator II (PBFA II) in May, 1994, and obtained a brightness temperature of 61 {+-} 2 eV for an ion-beam heated hohlraum. The hohlraum was a 4-mm-diameter, right-circular cylinder with a 1.5-mm-thick gold wall, a low-density CH foam fill, and a 1.5- or 3-mm-diameter diagnostic aperture in the top. The nominal parameters of the radially-incident PBFA II Li ion beam were 9 MeV peak energy ({approximately}10 MeV at the gas cell) at the target at a peak power of 2.5 {+-} 0.3 TW/cm{sup 2} and a 15 ns pulse width. Azimuthal variations in intensity of a factor of 3, with respect to the mean, were observed. Nonuniformities in thermal x-ray emission across the area of the diagnostic hole were also observed. Time-dependent hole-closure velocities were measured: the time-averaged velocity of {approximately}2 cm/{micro}s is in good agreement with sound speed estimates. Unfolded x-ray spectra and brightness temperatures as a function of time are reported and compared to simulations. Hole closure corrections are discussed with comparisons between XRD and bolometer measurements. Temperature scaling with power on target is also presented.

This report summarizes a two-year Laboratory-Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program to gain understanding and control of the important parameters which govern the optical performance of rare-earth (RE) doped ceramics. This LDRD developed the capability to determine stable atomic arrangements in RE doped alumina using local density functional theory, and to model the luminescence from RE-doped alumina using molecular dynamic simulations combined with crystal-field calculations. Local structural features for different phases of alumina were examined experimentally by comparing their photoluminescence spectra and the atomic arrangement of the amorphous phase was determined to be similar to that of the gamma phase. The luminescence lifetimes were correlated to these differences in the local structure. The design of both high and low-phonon energy host materials was demonstrated through the growth of Er-doped aluminum oxide and lanthanum oxide. Multicomponent structures of rare-earth doped telluride glass in an alumina and silica matrix were also prepared. Finally, the optical performance of Er-doped alumina was determined as a function of hydrogen content in the host matrix. This LDRD is the groundwork for future experimentation to understand the effects of ionizing radiation on the optical properties of RE-doped ceramic materials used in space and other radiation environments.

Recommendations for improving the process for expert panel reviews of technical and programmatic aspects of science and technology programs are provided based on an evaluation study of pilot reviews for two programs at Sandia National Laboratories. These reviews were part of a larger Technical Review Pilot for the US Department of Energy (DOE). Both the Sandia Pulse Power program and Solar Thermal Electric program (a virtual lab with NREL) reviews used the recommended four DOE review criteria, but motivation for the review and the review process differed. These differences provide insight into recommendations for ways to improve the review of DOE`s multifaceted technical programs. Recommendations are: (1) Review when the program has specific need for information or validation. There is no one size fits all correct time or reason to review technical programs. (2) Tailor the four DOE criteria to the program and its need for information and explain them to the Review Panel. (3) Pay attention to the review process. Spend more time in preparation and pre-review and on briefings on the review outcomes. (4) Evaluate reviews to determine how to do them better. The survey instrument is provided for those who wish to modify it for their own use.

That there are significant definitional differences between languages is a statement of the obvious. It logically follows that definitional ambiguity occurs when translating a term from one language to another. The far-reaching implications of this fact, however, are not as widely recognized. One word that has been and will continue to be significant is warhead. This analysis (1) examines the different translations and definitions of the word warhead in English and Russian; (2) discusses the usage of warhead in the context of arms control; and (3) explores the implications definitional differences have for future negotiations. It specifically utilizes treaty texts, as well as the Helsinki agreement text, to construct a contextual use of warhead. It is concluded that if US policymakers are committed to including nuclear explosive devices in START III force reductions, negotiators must identify and use a more specific term than warhead or boyegolovka. Also included as an appendix are copies of the signed Helsinki agreement in both English and Russian.

As part of the design of the Process and Environmental Technology Laboratory (PETL) in FY97, an energy conservation report (ECR) was completed. The original energy baseline for the building, established in Title 1 design, was 595,000 BTU/sq. ft./yr, site energy use. Following the input of several reviewers and the incorporation of the various recommendations into the Title 2 design, the projected energy consumption was reduced to 341,000 BTU/sq. ft./yr. Of this reduction, it is estimated that about 150,000 BTU/sq. ft./yr resulted from inclusion of more energy efficient options into the design. The remaining reductions resulted from better accounting of energy consumption between Title 1 ECR and the final ECR. The energy efficient features selected by the outcome of the ECR were: (1) Energy Recovery system, with evaporative cooling assist, for the Exhaust/Make-up Air System; (2) Chilled Water Thermal Storage system; (3) Premium efficiency motors for large, year-round applications; (4) Variable frequency drives for all air handling fan motors; (4) Premium efficiency multiple boiler system; and (5) Lighting control system. The annual energy cost savings due to these measures will be about $165,000. The estimated annual energy savings are two million kWhrs electric, and 168,000 therms natural gas, the total of which is equivalent to 23,000 million BTUs per year. Put into the perspective of a typical office/light lab at SNL/NM, the annual energy savings is equal the consumption of a 125,000 square foot building. The reduced air emissions are approximately 2,500 tons annually.

Thermite (metal oxide) mixtures, intermetallic reactants, and metal fuels have long been used in pyrotechnic applications. Advantages of these systems typically include high energy density, impact insensitivity, high combustion temperature, and a wide range of gas production. They generally exhibit high temperature stability, and possess insensitive ignition properties. In this paper, the authors review the applications, benefits, and characteristics of thermite mixtures, intermetallic reactants, and metal fuels. Calculated values for reactant density, heat of reaction (per unit mass and per unit volume), and reaction temperature (without and with consideration of phase changes and the variation of specific heat values) are tabulated. These data are ranked in several ways, according to density, heat of reaction, reaction temperature, and gas production.