A comprehensive critical infrastructure analysis of the People`s Republic of China was performed to address questions about China`s ability to meet its long-term grain requirements and energy needs and to estimate greenhouse gas emissions in China likely to result from increased agricultural production and energy use. Four dynamic computer simulation models of China`s infrastructures--water, agriculture, energy and greenhouse gas--were developed to simulate, respectively, the hydrologic budgetary processes, grain production and consumption, energy demand, and greenhouse gas emissions in China through 2025. The four models were integrated into a state-of-the-art comprehensive critical infrastructure model for all of China. This integrated model simulates diverse flows of commodities, such as water and greenhouse gas, between the separate models to capture the overall dynamics of the integrated system. The model was used to generate projections of China`s available water resources and expected water use for 10 river drainage regions representing 100% of China`s mean annual runoff and comprising 37 major river basins. These projections were used to develop estimates of the water surpluses and/or deficits in the three end-use sectors--urban, industrial, and agricultural--through the year 2025. Projections of the all-China demand for the three major grains (corn, wheat, and rice), meat, and other (other grains and fruits and vegetables) were also generated. Each geographic region`s share of the all-China grain demand (allocated on the basis of each region`s share of historic grain production) was calculated in order to assess the land and water resources in each region required to meet that demand. Growth in energy use in six historically significant sectors and growth in greenhouse gas loading were projected for all of China.
This paper explores the use of discrete-event simulation for the design and control of physical protection systems for fixed-site facilities housing items of significant value. It begins by discussing several modeling and simulation activities currently performed in designing and analyzing these protection systems and then discusses capabilities that design/analysis tools should have. The remainder of the article then discusses in detail how some of these new capabilities have been implemented in software to achieve a prototype design and analysis tool. The simulation software technology provides a communications mechanism between a running simulation and one or more external programs. In the prototype security analysis tool, these capabilities are used to facilitate human-in-the-loop interaction and to support a real-time connection to a virtual reality (VR) model of the facility being analyzed. This simulation tool can be used for both training (in real-time mode) and facility analysis and design (in fast mode).
Mixed arsenide/antimonide materials have unique properties which make them potentially valuable for use in VCSELs operating at wavelengths longer than 1 {micro}m. The authors present their progress in applying these materials to VCSEL designs for 1--1.55 {micro}m.
This report describes the results of an analysis to determine the economic and operational value of battery storage to wind and photovoltaic (PV) generation technologies to the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) system. The analysis approach consisted of performing a benefit-cost economic assessment using established SMUD financial parameters, system expansion plans, and current system operating procedures. This report presents the results of the analysis. Section 2 describes expected wind and PV plant performance. Section 3 describes expected benefits to SMUD associated with employing battery storage. Section 4 presents preliminary benefit-cost results for battery storage added at the Solano wind plant and the Hedge PV plant. Section 5 presents conclusions and recommendations resulting from this analysis. The results of this analysis should be reviewed subject to the following caveat. The assumptions and data used in developing these results were based on reports available from and interaction with appropriate SMUD operating, planning, and design personnel in 1994 and early 1995 and are compatible with financial assumptions and system expansion plans as of that time. Assumptions and SMUD expansion plans have changed since then. In particular, SMUD did not install the additional 45 MW of wind that was planned for 1996. Current SMUD expansion plans and assumptions should be obtained from appropriate SMUD personnel.
Single event gate rupture (SEGR) is a catastrophic failure mode that occurs in dielectric materials that are struck by energetic heavy ions while biased under a high electric field condition. SEGR can reduce the critical electric field to breakdown to less than half the value observed in normal voltage ramp reliability tests. As electric fields in gate oxides increase to greater than 5 MV/cm in advanced MOS technologies, the impact of SEGR on the reliability of space based electronics must be assessed. In this summary, the authors explore the nature of SEGR in oxides with thickness from 7 nm to less than 5 nm, where soft breakdown is often observed during traditional reliability tests. They discuss the possible connection between the present understanding of SEGR and voltage stress breakdown models.
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is under development by the US Department of Energy (DOE) for the geologic disposal of transuranic waste. The primary regulatory requirements (i.e., 40 CFR 191 and 40 CFR 194) placed on the WIPP by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) involve a complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF) for normalized radionuclide releases to the accessible environment. The interpretation and use of this CCDF from a decision analysis perspective is discussed and illustrated with results from the 1996 performance assessment for the WIPP, which was carried out to support a compliance certification application by the DOE to the EPA for the WIPP.
Non-shrinking polymers are desirable as encapsulants for strain-free packaging for electronics. Ring-opening polymerizations of cyclic monomers such as lactams, cyclic ethers, and cyclic oligosiloxanes have proven an effective strategy for reducing shrinkage. In this report the authors examined the loss of volume during the ring-opening polymerization of neat 2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-l-oxa-2,5-disilacyclopentane to give poly(1,2-ethylene-bis(dimethyl-siloxane)). Monomer 1 is under sufficient strain (8--12 kcal/mole) to permit its facile base-catalyzed polymerization to afford high molecular polymer. Monomer 1 was prepared by hydrolyzing and condensing either 1,2-bis(chlorodimethylsilyl)ethane or 1,m2-bis(dimethylethoxysilyl)ethane to give a low molecular weight oligomer. Pyrolysis of this oligomer with potassium hydroxide at 280 C afforded the cyclic monomer in good yield (60--70%). The ease with which the oligomer can be converted to monomer also led the authors to investigate the potential for recycling the high molecular weight polymer.
A backfill system has been designed for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) which will control the chemical environment of the post-closure repository to a domain where the actinide solubility is within its lowest region. The actinide solubility is highly dependent on the chemical species which constitute the fluid, the resulting pH of the fluid, and the oxidation state of the actinide which is stable under the specific conditions. The use of magnesium oxide (MgO) has the backfill material not only controls the pH of the expected fluids, but also effectively removes carbonate from the system, which has a significant impact on actinide solubility. The backfill selection process, emplacement system design, and confirmatory experimental results are presented.
In this paper the authors discuss the leveling process by which a business process ontology is formed in a distributed, multi-lingual, multi-stakeholder environment, with attention to realizing elicitation mechanisms that maintain registration of users` terms with the common ontology. Business processes are recognized from use-case analysis, specified in terms of the common ontology, and realized as operations on the components of a transaction: a temporally extended, complex, distributed object. A primary advantage of this approach is that users see private terminologies while the transaction object is specified in terms of the common ontology, and registration between the two is automatic and continuous. Ready realization of multiple interfaces to stakeholders, independently constructed validation and verification mechanisms, distributed data, and a standard elicitation mechanism and process are other advantages. The language formation process was used successfully during the development of the Border Trade Facilitation System, an agent-oriented mechanism that conducts international border-crossing transactions. In this implementation, agents operating within a federated architecture construct, populate, verify, certify, and manipulate a distributed composite transaction object to effect transport of goods over the US/Mexico border.
In order to promote internatinal confidence that the US and Russia are disarming per their commitments under Article 6 of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, an international verification regime may be applied to US and Russian excess fissile materials. Initially, it is envisioned that this verification regime would be applied at storage facilities; however, it should be anticipated that the verificatino regime would continue throughout any material disposition activities, should such activities be pursued. once the materials are accepted into the verification regime, it is assumed that long term monitoring will be used to maintain continuity of knowledge. The requirements for long term storage monitoring include unattended operation for extended periods of time, minimal intrusiveness on the host nation`s safety and security activities, data collection incorporating data authentication, and monitoring redundancy to allow resolution of anomalies and to continue coverage in the event of equipment failures. Additional requirements include effective data review and analysis processes, operation during storage facility loading, procedure for removal of inventory items for safety-related surveillance, and low cost, reliable equipment. A monitoring system might include both continuous monitoring of storagecontainers and continuous area monitoring. These would be complemented with periodic on-site inspections. A fissile material storage facility is not a static operation. The initial studies have shown there are a number of volid reasions why a host nation may need them to remove material from the storage facility. A practical monitoring system must be able to accommodate necessary material movements.
Deep-reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon, also known as high-aspect-ratio silicon etching (HARSE), is distinguished by fast etch rates ({approximately}3 {micro}m/min), crystal orientation independence, anisotropy, vertical sidewall profiles and CMOS compatibility. By using through-wafer HARSE and stopping on a dielectric film placed on the opposite side of the wafer, freestanding dielectric membranes were produced. Dielectric membrane-based sensors and actuators fabricated in this way include microhotplates, flow sensors, valves and magnetically-actuated flexural plate wave (FPW) devices. Unfortunately, low-stress silicon nitride, a common membrane material, has an appreciable DRI etch rate. To overcome this problem HARSE can be followed by a brief wet chemical etch. This approach has been demonstrated using KOH or HF/Nitric/Acetic etchants, both of which have significantly smaller etch rates on silicon nitride than does DRIE. Composite membranes consisting of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers are also under evaluation due to the higher DRIE selectivity to silicon dioxide.
For more than two decades, risk analysts have relied on powerful logic-based models to perform their analyses. However, the applicability of these models has been limited because they can be complex and expensive to develop. Analysts must frequently start from scratch when analyzing a new (but similar) system because the understanding of how the system works exists only in the mind of the analyst and is only incompletely instantiated in the actual logic model. This paper introduces the notion of using explicit object-oriented system models, such as those embodied in computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools, to document the analyst`s understanding of the system and appropriately capture how the system works. It also shows that from these models, standard assessment products, such as fault trees and event trees, can be automatically derived.
The authors describe the design, modeling, fabrication and initial testing of a new test structure for friction measurement in MEMS. The device consists of a cantilevered forked beam and a friction pad attached via a hinge. Compared to previous test structures, the proposed structure can measure friction over much larger pressure ranges, yet occupies one hundred times less area. The placement of the hinge is crucial to obtaining a well-known and constant pressure distribution in the device. Static deflections on the device were measured and modeled numerically, Preliminary results indicate that friction pad slip is sensitive to friction pad normal force.
In this paper a hybrid, finite element/boundary element method which can be used to solve for particle diffusion in semi-infinite domains containing geometric obstructions and a variable advective field is presented. In previous work either boundary element or finite element/difference methods were used to solve for particle concentrations in an advective domain. These methods of solution had a number of limitations. Due to limitations in computing spatially dependent Green`s functions, the boundary element method of solution was limited to domains containing only constant advective fields, and due to its inherent formulation, finite element/difference methods were limited to only domains of finite spatial extent. Thus, where the finite element solution was limited, the boundary element solution was not, and where the boundary element solution was limited, the finite element solution was not. In this paper it is proposed to split the total domain into two sub-domains where each method of solution is applicable. For each of these sub-domains, the appropriate solution method is used; thereby, producing a general method of solution for the total semi-infinite domain.
Recent developments in pulsed power technology demonstrate use of intense radiation sources (Z pinches) for driving planar shock waves in samples with spatial dimensions larger than possible with other radiation sources. Initial indications are that the use of Z pinch sources can be used to produce planar shock waves in samples with diameters of a few millimeters and thicknesses approaching one half millimeter. These dimensions allow increased accuracy of both shock velocity and particle velocity measurements. The Z pinch radiation source uses imploding metal plasma induced by self-magnetic fields applied to wire arrays to produce high temperature x-ray environments in vacuum hohlraum enclosures. Previous experiments have demonstrated that planar shock waves can be produced with this approach. A photograph of a wire array located inside the vacuum hohlraum is shown here. Typically, a few hundred individual wires are used to produce the Z pinch source. For the shock wave experiments being designed, arrays of 120 to 240 tungsten wires with a diameter of 40 mm and with individual diameters of about 10 {micro}m are used. Preliminary experiments have been performed on the Z pulsed radiation source to demonstrate the ability to obtain VISAR measurements in the Z accelerator environment. Analysis of these results indicate that another effect, not initially anticipated, is an apparent change in refractive index that occurs in the various optical components used in the system. This effect results in an apparent shift in the frequency of reflected laser light, and causes an error in the measured particle velocity. Experiments are in progress to understand and minimize this effect.
Chemical sensor arrays are an alternative to the tedious development of highly specific single-analyte detectors. Recent efforts have focused on the chemical and physical diversity of interface materials for SAW sensor arrays. However, the issues of wide dynamic range and high sensitivity must also be addressed for sensor arrays to compete in applications requiring low detection limits. Because SAW devices respond in proportion to change in mass per nominal unit area of the device surface, sensitivity is enhanced by surface modification with high-area, thin-film coating materials: a greater mass of analyte is adsorbed at a given ambient concentration. The authors are exploring several classes of electrochemically prepared high-area films, materials whose formulations and processing are well documented for applications other than chemical sensors. They present results from films formed by anodization, chemical conversion, and electroplating, yielding surface area enhancements as high as 170x.
The development and application of energy technologies for all aspects from generation to storage have improved dramatically with the advent of advanced computational tools, particularly modeling and simulation. Modeling and simulation are not new to energy technology development, and have been used extensively ever since the first commercial computers were available. However, recent advances in computing power and access have broadened the extent and use, and, through increased fidelity (i.e., accuracy) of the models due to greatly enhanced computing power, the increased reliance on modeling and simulation has shifted the balance point between modeling and experimentation. The complex nature of energy technologies has motivated researchers to use these tools to understand better performance, reliability and cost issues related to energy. The tools originated in sciences such as the strength of materials (nuclear reactor containment vessels); physics, heat transfer and fluid flow (oil production); chemistry, physics, and electronics (photovoltaics); and geosciences and fluid flow (oil exploration and reservoir storage). Other tools include mathematics, such as statistics, for assessing project risks. This paper describes a few advancements made possible by these tools and explores the benefits and costs of their use, particularly as they relate to the acceleration of energy technology development. The computational complexity ranges from basic spreadsheets to complex numerical simulations using hardware ranging from personal computers (PCs) to Cray computers. In all cases, the benefits of using modeling and simulation relate to lower risks, accelerated technology development, or lower cost projects.
The author presents a novel method for calculating the penetration of soft targets by hard projectiles by using a combination of ALE and contact surface techniques. This method allows the bifurcation in the softer material (at the point of the projectile) to be represented without sacrificing the Lagrangian representation of either the harder material or the contact interface. A series of calculations using this method show good agreement with the experimental data of Forrestal et al. This method may prove useful for a range of semi-fluid/structure interactions with friction, including simulations of manufacturing processes.
The Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS) was established to define a framework for the essential functions of managing work safely. There are five Safety Management Functions in the model of the ISMS process: (1) work planning, (2) hazards analysis, (3) hazards control, (4) work performance, and (5) feedback and improve. Recent activities at the Radioactive and Mixed Waste Management Facility underscored the importance and effectiveness of integrating the ISMS process to safely manage high-hazard work with a minimum of personnel in a timely and efficient manner. This report describes how project personnel followed the framework of the ISMS process to successfully repackage tritium-contaminated oils. The main objective was to open the boxes without allowing the gaseous tritium oxide, which had built up inside the boxes, to release into the sorting room. The boxes would be vented out the building stack until tritium concentration levels were acceptable. The carboys would be repackaged into 30-gallon drums and caulked shut. Sealing the drums would decrease the tritium off-gassing into the RMWMF.
Sandia has used flyback transformers for many years, primarily to charge capacitors for capacitive discharge units. Important characteristics of the transformer design are to meet inductance, turns ratio, and high voltage breakdown requirements as well as not magnetically saturating during each energy transfer cycle. Sandia has taken over production responsibility for magnetic components from a previous GE/LM, General Electric/Lockheed Martin, facility in Florida that produced {approximately} 50 K units per year. Vanguard Electronics is working with Sandia to transfer many of these designs to Vanguard`s small manufacturing facility in Gardena, CA. The challenge is to achieve the required high reliability and meet all the other electrical requirements with such small quantities of parts, {approximately} 100 per year. DOE requirements include high reliability {le} 3 failures per 10,000 components per 20 years while meeting numerous other environmental requirements. The basic design and prove-in required four lots of preproduction parts, extensive environmental testing, and numerous design changes. The manufacturing problems that affected performance of the transformer will be presented. These include encapsulation voids and core alignment. Also, some extended life test data that predicts long term reliability of newly produced transformers versus older designs will be compared.
This paper presents a Generalized Logistic (gLG) distribution as a unified model for Log-domain synthetic aperture Radar (SAR) data. This model stems from a special case of the G-distribution known as the G{sup 0}-distribution. The G-distribution arises from a multiplicative SAR model and has the classical K-distribution as another special case. The G{sup 0}-distribution, however, can model extremely heterogeneous clutter regions that the k-distribution cannot model. This flexibility is preserved in the unified gLG model, which is capable of modeling non-polarimetric SAR returns from clutter as well as man-made objects. Histograms of these two types of SAR returns have opposite skewness. The flexibility of the gLG model lies in its shape and shift parameters. The shape parameter describes the differing skewness between target and clutter data while the shift parameter compensates for movements in the mean as the shape parameter changes. A Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimate of the shape parameter gives an optimal measure of the skewness of the SAR data. This measure provides a basis for an optimal target detection algorithm.
In August 1995, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued a policy statement proposing improved regulatory decisionmaking by increasing the use of PRA [probabilistic risk assessment] in all regulatory matters to the extent supported by the state-of-the-art in PRA methods and data. A key aspect in using PRA in risk-informed regulatory activities is establishing the appropriate scope and attributes of the PRA. In this regard, ASME decided to develop a consensus PRA Standard. The objective is to develop a PRA Standard such that the technical quality of nuclear plant PRAs will be sufficient to support risk-informed regulatory applications. This paper presents examples recommendations for the systems analysis element of a PRA for incorporation into the ASME PRA Standard.
Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon was utilized to fabricate dielectric membrane-based devices such as microhotplates, valves and flexural plate wave (FPW) devices. Through-wafer DRIE is characterized by fast etch rates ({approximately} 3 {micro}m/min), crystal orientation independence, vertical sidewall profiles and CMOS compatibility. Low-stress silicon nitride, a popular membrane material, has an appreciable DRIE etch rate. To overcome this limitations DRIE can be accompanied by a brief wet chemical etch. This approach has been demonstrated using KOH or HF/Nitric/Acetic etchants, both of which have significantly lower etch rates on silicon nitride than does DRIE. The DRIE etch properties of composite membranes consisting of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers are also under evaluation due to the higher DRIE selectivity to silicon dioxide.
Molecular recognition is an important topic when searching for new, selective coating materials for chemical sensing. Recently, the general idea of molecular recognition in the gas phase was challenged by Grate et al. However, in earlier thickness-shear mode resonator (TSMR) investigations, convincing evidence was presented for specific recognition of particular analyte target molecules. In this study, the authors systematically investigated coatings previously shown to be highly selective, such as the bucket-like cyclodextrins for chiral recognition, Ni-camphorates for the specific detection of the bases pyridine and DMMP (dimethylmethylphosphonate), and phthalocyanines to specifically detect benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX).
chemical sensor arrays eliminate the need to develop a high-selectivity material for every analyte. The application of pattern recognition to the simultaneous responses of different microsensors enables the identification and quantification of multiple analytes with a small array. Maximum materials diversity is the surest means to create an effective array for many analytes, but using a single material family simplifies coating development. Here the authors report the successful combination of an array of six dendrimer films with mass-sensitive SAW (surface acoustic wave) sensors to correctly identify 18 organic analytes over wide concentration ranges, with 99.5% accuracy. The set of materials for the array is selected and the results evaluated using Sandia`s Visual-Empirical Region of Influence (VERI) pattern recognition (PR) technique. The authors evaluated eight dendrimer films and one self-assembled monolayer (SAM) as potential SAW array coatings. The 18 organic analytes they examined were: cyclohexane, n-hexane, i-octane, kerosene, benzene, toluene, chlorobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, methanol, n-propanol, pinacolyl alcohol, acetone, methyl isobutyl ketone, dimethylmethylphosphate, diisopropylmethylphosphonate, tributylphosphate, and water.
