Publications

The Statistics and Human Factors Department at SNL has evolved as the Labs' mission has evolved from engineering designs for the non-nuclear parts of nuclear weapons, including the safety and security components, to a multi-program lab focusing on national security. Twenty years ago their client base was the engineers, scientists, and managers of the nuclear weapon stockpile program, at Sandia and other facilities within the DOE complex. Client relationships developed over years of association. Components and systems were assigned to statisticians so that they could develop a knowledge base in that area. Because of the many different component types and system designs in the stockpile, they typically juggled five or six statistical projects at a time. project participation other than statistical consulting was limited. They rarely had the time to lead project teams, and any skills or inclinations in that direction were often undeveloped. This paper describes a (hit-or-miss) selection of some early and recent efforts. This paper also presents their self-assessment metrics and their external assessment metrics. These metrics were selected to track the business aspects of the department; they are systematic (not hit-or-miss). These two types of histories should allow them to judge whether we're doing the right things, and also doing things right.

Methods are discussed for computing the sensitivity of field variables to changes in material properties and initial/boundary condition parameters for heat transfer problems. The method we focus on is termed the ''Sensitivity Equation Method'' (SEM). It involves deriving field equations for sensitivity coefficients by differentiating the original field equations with respect to the parameters of interest and numerically solving the resulting sensitivity field equations. Uncertainty in the model parameters are then propagated through the computational model using results derived from first-order perturbation theory; this technique is identical to the methodology typically used to propagate experimental uncertainty. Numerical results are presented for the design of an experiment to estimate the thermal conductivity of stainless steel using transient temperature measurements made on prototypical hardware of a companion contact conductance experiment. Comments are made relative to extending the SEM to conjugate heat transfer problems.

The investigation of a complex system is often performed using computer generated response data supplemented by system and component test results where possible. Analysts rely on an efficient use of limited experimental resources to test the physical system, evaluate the models and to assure (to the extent possible) that the models accurately simulate the system order investigation. The general problem considered here is one where only a restricted number of system simulations (or physical tests) can be performed to provide additional data necessary to accomplish the project objectives. The levels of variables used for defining input scenarios, for setting system parameters and for initializing other experimental options must be selected in an efficient way. The use of computer algorithms to support experimental design in complex problems has been a topic of recent research in the areas of statistics and engineering. This paper describes a resampling based approach to form dating this design. An example is provided illustrating in two dimensions how the algorithm works and indicating its potential on larger problems. The results show that the proposed approach has characteristics desirable of an algorithmic approach on the simple examples. Further experimentation is needed to evaluate its performance on larger problems.

AerMet 100 is a high strength, high fracture toughness alloy designed for use in aerospace applications. In previous work the welding behavior of this alloy has been evaluated, and it has been shown that a softened region in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a principal feature of the weld zone. A model for this softening, based on classical theories of precipitate coarsening and isothermal softening data, was developed and found to provide a reasonable description for weld thermal cycle simulation (Gleeble) experiments. Recent work has shown, however, that softening in real welds is not always well predicted by this model, so that additional effects, which are not captured in conventional Gleeble thermal cycle simulations must be addressed. In particular, the stresses associated with real weld HAZ's may modify the softening kinetics. In the current work, Gleeble simulations in both stress-free and stressed conditions have been conducted and the kinetics compared. The accuracy of the thermal model predictions have also been considered regarding their impact on estimated hardness values.

The parametric grid capability of the Knowledge Base (KBase) provides an efficient robust way to store and access interpolatable information that is needed to monitor the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. To meet both the accuracy and performance requirements of operational monitoring systems, we use an approach which combines the error estimation of kriging with the speed and robustness of Natural Neighbor Interpolation. The method involves three basic steps: data preparation, data storage, and data access. In past presentations we have discussed in detail the first step. In this paper we focus on the latter two, describing in detail the type of information which must be stored and the interface used to retrieve parametric grid data from the Knowledge Base. Once data have been properly prepared, the information (tessellation and associated value surfaces) needed to support the interface functionality, can be entered into the KBase. The primary types of parametric grid data that must be stored include (1) generic header information; (2) base model, station, and phase names and associated ID's used to construct surface identifiers; (3) surface accounting information; (4) tessellation accounting information; (5) mesh data for each tessellation; (6) correction data defined for each surface at each node of the surfaces owning tessellation (7) mesh refinement calculation set-up and flag information; and (8) kriging calculation set-up and flag information. The eight data components not only represent the results of the data preparation process but also include all required input information for several population tools that would enable the complete regeneration of the data results if that should be necessary.

This work is an attempt to elucidate effects that may limit efficiency in magnetrons operated at relativistic voltages (V {approximately} 500 kV). Three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation is used to investigate the behavior of 14 and 22 cavity, cylindrical, rising-sun magnetrons. Power is extracted radially through a single iris located at the end of every other cavity. Numerical results show that in general output power and efficiency increase approximately linearly with increasing iris width (decreasing vacuum Q) until the total Q becomes too low for stable oscillation in the n-mode to be maintained. Beyond this point mode competition and/or switching occur and efficiency decreases. Results reveal that the minimum value of Q (maximum efficiency) that can be achieved prior to the onset of mode competition is significantly affected by the magnitude of the 0-space-harmonic of the {pi}-mode, a unique characteristic of rising-suns, and by the magnitude of the electron current density (space-charge effects). By minimizing these effects, up to 3.7 GW output power has been produced at an efficiency of 40%.

The incorporation of vacancies, H atoms, and sp{sup 2} bond defects into single-crystal homoepitaxial (100)(2x1)- and(111)-oriented CVD diamond was simulated by atomic-scale kinetic Monte Carlo. Simulations were performed for substrate temperatures from 600 C to 1200 C with 0.4% CH{sub 4} in the feed gas, and for 0.4% to 7% CH{sub 4} feeds with a substrate temperature of 800 C. The concentrations of incorporated H atoms increase with increasing substrate temperature and feed gas composition, and sp{sup 2} bond trapping increases with increasing feed gas composition. Vacancy concentrations are low under all conditions. The ratio of growth rate to H atom concentration is highest around 800-900 C, and the growth rate to sp{sup 2} ratio is maximum around 1% CH{sub 4}, suggesting that these conditions are ideal for economical diamond growth under the simulated conditions.

Abstract not provided.

Under both static and common MAS conditions (< 15 kHz) the question of residual X-Y heteronuclear decoupling can become a complicating factor in the analysis of various NMR results. In our lab the impact of {sup 31}P-{sup 23}Na dipolar coupling on the observed {sup 23}Na M{sub 2} relaxation for a series of sodium phosphate glasses was recently investigated by employing continuous wave {sup 31}P decoupling during the entire pulse sequence. Initially these efforts were complicate by the inability to provide a gating pulse during the data acquisition using the standard Bruker nomenclature, go=2, for the acquisition loop. A pulse sequence to overcome these restrictions is given below. Our AMX400 instrument is configured with a 3 channel MCI, but utilizes a linear AMT amplifier on the 3rd channel (requiring gating pulse via the C4 program call during the entire time it is on). The standard acquisition loop has been replaced by direct adc and aq commands for data acquisition. Unlike the go=2 statement which does not allow a C4 gating command to be included, these individual acquisition commands can all include distinct C4 gating.

ZX is a new z-pinch accelerator planned as the next generation z-pinch driver at SNL, and as an intermediate step towards X-1. It is planned to drive either a single 50 MA z-pinch load, or two 25 to 30 MA z pinches. Three designs for the ZX accelerator are presented. All require 7 to 8 MV at the insulator stack to drive the z-pinch load to implosion in 100 to 120 ns. Two of the designs are based on the Z accelerator, and use water-line technology; a transit-time-isolated water adder, and a water transformer. The third design uses inductive-voltage adders in water. They also describe a low-inductance insulator stack design that helps minimize voltage requirements. This design is evaluated for water and vacuum break-down using JCM, THM, and magnetic-flashover-inhibition criteria.

The Z-accelerator at the Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) was modified in 1996 to deliver a 20 MA pulse to a z-pinch load in 100 ns. The pulsed-power driver is a 36-module waterline accelerator. Each waterline contains four self-break switches as part of the pulse-forming section. A study was conducted to investigate the effects of increasing the capacitance of the waterline switches on the shape of the electrical prepulse at the load. Past studies have shown that increasing the prepulse at the z-pinch load increases the x-ray output power. In this study, one set of switches with its surrounding waterline hardware was modeled in 3-D and capacitance calculated using the electrostatic code, COULOME. The capacitance values were used in a SCREAMER model of the Z-accelerator. SCREAMER an SNL developed, lumped-element circuit code was used to calculate the time-dependent current waveforms delivered to the z-pinch load. The design was changed and a new capacitance matrix and output waveforms were calculated. This paper presents the results of the COULOMB 3-D modeling, and the SCREAMER circuit-model analyses.

A suite of plate loading tests has recently been conducted by Sandia National Laboratories at the Exploratory Studies Facility at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Fielding of these in situ tests as well as other approaches undertaken for the determination of rock mass modulus are described. The various methodologies are evaluated and their data compared. Calculation by existing empirical methods and numerical modeling are compared to each other as well as to field data.

Stress measurement test chips were flip chip assembled to organic BGA substrates containing micro-vias and epoxy build-up interconnect layers. Mechanical degradation observed during temperature cycling was correlated to a damage theory developed based on 3D finite element method analysis. Degradation included die cracking, edge delamination and radial fillet cracking.

We discuss the design and testing of a miniaturized explosives preconcentrator that can be used to enhance the capabilities of man-portable field detection systems, such as those based on ion mobility spectrometry (IMS). The preconcentrator is a smaller version of a similar device that was developed recently at Sandia National Laboratories for use in a trace detection portal that screens personnel for explosives. Like its predecessor, this preconcentrator is basically a filtering device that allows a small amount of explosive residue in a large incoming airflow to be concentrated into a much smaller air volume via adsorption and resorption, prior to delivery into a chemical detector. We discuss laboratory testing of this preconcentrator interfaced to a commercially available IMS-based detection system, with emphasis on the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX). The issues investigated include optimization of the preconcentrator volume and inlet airflow, the use of different types of adsorbing surfaces within the preconcentrator, Wd preconcentrator efficiency and concentration factor. We discuss potential field applications of the preconcentrator, as well as avenues for further investigations and improvements.

A portable, autonomous, hand-held chemical laboratory ({mu}ChemLab{trademark}) is being developed for trace detection (ppb) of chemical warfare (CW) agents and explosives in real-world environments containing high concentrations of interfering compounds. Microfabrication is utilized to provide miniature, low-power components that are characterized by rapid, sensitive and selective response. Sensitivity and selectivity are enhanced using two parallel analysis channels, each containing the sequential connection of a front-end sample collector/concentrator, a gas chromatographic (GC) separator, and a surface acoustic wave (SAW) detector. Component design and fabrication and system performance are described.

During the development and qualification of a radiation-hardened, 0.5 {micro}m shallow trench isolation technology, several yield-limiting defects were observed. The 256K (32K x 8) static-random access memories (SRAMs) used as a technology characterization vehicle had elevated power supply current during wafer probe testing. Many of the die sites were functional, but exhibited quiescent power supply current (I{sub DDQ}) in excess of 100 {micro}A, the present limit for this particular SRAM. Initial electrical analysis indicated that many of the die sites exhibited unstable I{sub DDQ} that fluctuated rapidly. We refer to this condition as ''jitter.'' The I{sub DDQ} jitter appeared to be independent of temperature and predominantly associated with the larger 256K SRAMs and not as prevalent in the 16K SRAMs (on the same reticle set). The root cause of failure was found to be two major processing problems: salicide bridging and stress-induced dislocations in the silicon islands.

As information systems have become distributed over many computers within the enterprise, managing those applications has become increasingly important. This is an emerging area of work, recognized as such by many large organizations as well as many start-up companies. In this report, we present a summary of the move to distributed applications, some of the problems that came along for the ride, and some specific examples of the tools and techniques we have used to analyze distributed applications and gain some insight into the mechanics and politics of distributed computing.

A description and user's guide are given for a computer program, PATTRN, developed at Sandia National Laboratories for use in sensitivity analyses of complex models. This program is intended for use in the analysis of input-output relationships in Monte Carlo analyses when the input has been selected using random or Latin hypercube sampling. Procedures incorporated into the program are based upon attempts to detect increasingly complex patterns in scatterplots and involve the detection of linear relationships, monotonic relationships, trends in measures of central tendency, trends in measures of variability, and deviations from randomness. The program was designed to be easy to use and portable.

This report documents the history of Building 828 in Sandia National Laboratories' Technical Area I. Building 828 was constructed in 1946 as a mechanical test laboratory for Los Alamos' Z-Division (later Sandia) as it moved to Sandia Base. The building has undergone significant remodeling over the years and has had a variety of occupants. The building was evaluated in compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act, but was not eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. Nevertheless, for many Labs employees, it was a symbol of Sandia's roots in World War II and the Manhattan Project.

A major cause of semiconductor yield degradation is contaminant particles that deposit on wafers while they reside in processing tools during integrated circuit manufacturing. This report presents numerical models for assessing particle transport and deposition in a parallel-plate geometry characteristic of a wide range of single-wafer processing tools: uniform downward flow exiting a perforated-plate showerhead separated by a gap from a circular wafer resting on a parallel susceptor. Particles are assumed to originate either upstream of the showerhead or from a specified position between the plates. The physical mechanisms controlling particle deposition and transport (inertia, diffusion, fluid drag, and external forces) are reviewed, with an emphasis on conditions encountered in semiconductor process tools (i.e., sub-atmospheric pressures and submicron particles). Isothermal flow is assumed, although small temperature differences are allowed to drive particle thermophoresis. Numerical solutions of the flow field are presented which agree with an analytic, creeping-flow expression for Re < 4. Deposition is quantified by use of a particle collection efficiency, which is defined as the fraction of particles in the reactor that deposit on the wafer. Analytic expressions for collection efficiency are presented for the limiting case where external forces control deposition (i.e., neglecting particle diffusion and inertia). Deposition from simultaneous particle diffusion and external forces is analyzed by an Eulerian formulation; for creeping flow and particles released from a planar trap, the analysis yields an analytic, integral expression for particle deposition based on process and particle properties. Deposition from simultaneous particle inertia and external forces is analyzed by a Lagrangian formulation, which can describe inertia-enhanced deposition resulting from particle acceleration in the showerhead. An approximate analytic expression is derived for particle velocity at the showerhead exit as a function of showerhead geometry, flow rate, and gas and particle properties. The particle showerhead-exit velocity is next used as an initial condition for particle transport between the plates to determine whether the particle deposits on the wafer, as a function of shower-head-exit particle velocity, the plate separation, flow rate, and gas and particle properties. Based on the numerical analysis, recommendations of best practices are presented that should help tool operators and designers reduce particle deposition in real tools. These guidelines are not intended to replace detailed calculations, but to provide the user with a general feel for inherently-clean practices.

This LDRD project explored the fundamental physics of a new class of photonic materials, photonic bandgap structures (PBG), and examine its unique properties for the design and implementation of photonic devices on a nano-meter length scale for the control and confinement of light. The low loss, highly reflective and quantum interference nature of a PBG material makes it one of the most promising candidates for realizing an extremely high-Q resonant cavity, >10,000, for optoelectronic applications and for the exploration of novel photonic physics, such as photonic localization, tunneling and modification of spontaneous emission rate. Moreover, the photonic bandgap concept affords us with a new opportunity to design and tailor photonic properties in very much the same way we manipulate, or bandgap engineer, electronic properties through modern epitaxy.

A database of mechanical properties for weldment fusion and heat-affected zones was established for AerMet{reg_sign}100 alloy, and a study of the welding metallurgy of the alloy was conducted. The properties database was developed for a matrix of weld processes (electron beam and gas-tungsten arc) welding parameters (heat inputs) and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) conditions. In order to insure commercial utility and acceptance, the matrix was commensurate with commercial welding technology and practice. Second, the mechanical properties were correlated with fundamental understanding of microstructure and microstructural evolution in this alloy. Finally, assessments of optimal weld process/PWHT combinations for cotildent application of the alloy in probable service conditions were made. The database of weldment mechanical properties demonstrated that a wide range of properties can be obtained in welds in this alloy. In addition, it was demonstrated that acceptable welds, some with near base metal properties, could be produced from several different initial heat treatments. This capability provides a means for defining process parameters and PWHT's to achieve appropriate properties for different applications, and provides useful flexibility in design and manufacturing. The database also indicated that an important region in welds is the softened region which develops in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and analysis within the welding metallurgy studies indicated that the development of this region is governed by a complex interaction of precipitate overaging and austenite formation. Models and experimental data were therefore developed to describe overaging and austenite formation during thermal cycling. These models and experimental data can be applied to essentially any thermal cycle, and provide a basis for predicting the evolution of microstructure and properties during thermal processing.

The original scope of the project was to research improvements to the processes and materials used in the manufacture of wood-epoxy blades, conduct tests to qualify any new material or processes for use in blade design and subsequently build and test six blades using the improved processes and materials. In particular, ABM was interested in reducing blade cost and improving quality. In addition, ABM needed to find a replacement material for the mature Douglas fir used in the manufacturing process. The use of mature Douglas fir is commercially unacceptable because of its limited supply and environmental concerns associated with the use of mature timber. Unfortunately, the bankruptcy of FloWind in June 1997 and a dramatic reduction in AWT sales made it impossible for ABM to complete the full scope of work. However, sufficient research and testing were completed to identify several promising changes in the blade manufacturing process and develop a preliminary design incorporating these changes.

This report presents an implementation of the Berlekamp-Massey linear feedback shift-register (LFSR) synthesis algorithm in the C programming language. Two pseudo-code versions of the code are given, the operation of LFSRs is explained, C-version of the pseudo-code versions is presented, and the output of the code, when run on two input samples, is shown.

Decontamination of radioactive contaminated stainless steel using the ESR process is investigated by conducting thermophysical and thermochemical laboratory studies on the slag. The ESR base slag investigated in this research project is 60wt%CaF{sub 2}-20wt%CaO-20wt%Al{sub 2}O{sub 3}. In this report, we present the data obtained to date on relevant slag properties, capacity to incorporate the radioactive contaminant (using CeO{sub 3}) as surrogate, simulant for PUO{sub 2} and UO{sub 2}, slag-metal partition coefficient, volatilization rate and volatile species, viscosity, electrical conductivity and surface tension as a function of temperature. The impact of these properties on the ESR decontamination process is presented.

A theoretical analysis has been completed for a proposed induction logging tool designed to yield data which are used to generate three dimensional images of the region surrounding a well bore. The proposed tool consists of three mutually orthogonal magnetic dipole sources and multiple 3 component magnetic field receivers offset at different distances from the source. The initial study employs sensitivity functions which are derived by applying the Born Approximation to the integral equation that governs the magnetic fields generated by a magnetic dipole source located within an inhomogeneous medium. The analysis has shown that the standard coaxial configuration, where the magnetic moments of both the source and the receiver are aligned with the axis of the well bore, offers the greatest depth of sensitivity away from the borehole compared to any other source-receiver combination. In addition this configuration offers the best signal-to-noise characteristics. Due to the cylindrically symmetric nature of the tool sensitivity about the borehole, the data generated by this configuration can only be interpreted in terms of a two-dimensional cylindrical model. For a fill 3D interpretation the two radial components of the magnetic field that are orthogonal to each other must be measured. Coil configurations where both the source and receiver are perpendicular to the tool axis can also be employed to increase resolution and provide some directional information, but they offer no true 3D information.

Abstract not provided.

Abstract not provided.

The understanding and manipulation of the point defect structure in oxide glasses have been critical to the enhanced performance and reliability of optical-fiber-based, photosensitive photonic devices that currently found widespread application in telecommunications and remote sensing technologies. We provide a brief review of past research investigating photosensitive mechanisms in germanosilicate glasses, the primary material system used in telecommunications fibers. This discussion motivates an overview of ongoing work within our laboratories to migrate photosensitive glass technologies to a planar format for integrated photonic applications. Using reactive-atmosphere, RF-magnetron sputtering, we have demonstrated control of glass defect structure during synthesis, thereby controlling both the material photosensitivity (i. e. dispersion and magnitude of the refractive index change) and its environmental stability.

We examined the ability of a halophilic bacterium (WFP 1A) isolated from the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) site to accumulate uranium in order to determine the potential for biocolloid facilitated actinide transport. The bacterial cell Surface functional groups involved in the complexation of the actinide were determined by titration. Uranium, added as uranyl nitrate, was removed from solution at pH 5 by cells but at pH 7 and 9 very little uranium was removed due to its limited volubility. Although present as soluble species, uranyl citrate at pH 5, 7, and 9, and uranyl carbonate at pH 9 were not removed by the bacterium because they were not bioavailable due to their neutral or negative charge. Addition of uranyl EDTA to brine at pH 5, 7, and 9 resulted in the immediate precipitation of U. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis revealed that uranium was not only associated with the cell surface but also accumulated intracellulary as uranium-enriched granules. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis, of the bacterial cells indicated the bulk sample contained more than one uranium phase. Nevertheless these results show the potential for the formation of actinide bearing bacterial biocolloids that are strictly regulated by the speciation and bioavailability of the actinide.

Both the increased complexity of integrated circuits, resulting in six or more levels of integration, and the increasing use of flip-chip packaging have driven the development of integrated circuit (IC) failure analysis tools that can be applied to the backside of the chip. Among these new approaches are focused ion beam (FIB) tools and processes for performing chip edits/repairs from the die backside. This paper describes the use of backside FIB for a failure analysis application rather than for chip repair. Specifically, we used FIB technology to prepare an IC for inspection of voided metal interconnects (''lines'') and vias. Conventional FIB milling was combined with a super-enhanced gas assisted milling process that uses XeF{sub 2} for rapid removal of large volumes of bulk silicon. This combined approach allowed removal of the TiW underlayer from a large number of Ml lines simultaneously, enabling rapid localization and plan view imaging of voids in lines and vias with backscattered electron (BSE) imaging in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Sequential cross sections of individual voided vias enabled us to develop a 3-d reconstruction of these voids. This information clarified how the voids were formed, helping us identify the IC process steps that needed to be changed.

As part of a collaborative effort between Sandia National Laboratories and the University of Kentucky to develop a deployable mirror for remote sensing applications, research in shape sensing and control algorithms that leverage the distributed nature of electron gun excitation for piezoelectric bimorph mirrors is summarized. A coarse shape sensing technique is developed that uses reflected light rays from the sample surface to provide discrete slope measurements. Estimates of surface profiles are obtained with a cubic spline curve fitting algorithm. Experiments on a PZT bimorph illustrate appropriate deformation trends as a function of excitation voltage. A parallel effort to effect desired shape changes through electron gun excitation is also summarized. A one dimensional model-based algorithm is developed to correct profile errors in bimorph beams. A more useful two dimensional algorithm is also developed that relies on measured voltage-curvature sensitivities to provide corrective excitation profiles for the top and bottom surfaces of bimorph plates. The two algorithms are illustrated using finite element models of PZT bimorph structures subjected to arbitrary disturbances. Corrective excitation profiles that yield desired parabolic forms are computed, and are shown to provide the necessary corrective action.

We report on recent studies of the effects of 50 keV focused ion beam (FIB) exposure on MOS transistors. We demonstrate that the changes in value of transistor parameters (such as threshold voltage, V{sub t}) are essentially the same for exposure to a Ga+ ion beam at 30 and 50 keV under the same exposure conditions. We characterize the effects of FIB exposure on test transistors fabricated in both 0.5 {micro}m and 0.225 {micro}m technologies from two different vendors. We report on the effectiveness of overlying metal layers in screening MOS transistors from FIB-induced damage and examine the importance of ion dose rate and the physical dimensions of the exposed area.

Both the increased complexity of integrated circuits, resulting in six or more levels of integration, and the increasing use of flip-chip packaging have driven the development of integrated circuit (IC) failure analysis tools that can be applied to the backside of the chip. Among these new approaches are focused ion beam (FIB) tools and processes for performing chip edits/repairs from the die backside. This paper describes the use of backside FIB for a failure analysis application rather than for chip repair. Specifically, they used FIB technology to prepare an IC for inspection of voided metal interconnects (lines) and vias. Conventional FIB milling was combined with a super-enhanced gas assisted milling process that uses XeF{sub 2} for rapid removal of large volumes of bulk silicon. This combined approach allowed removal of the TiW underlayer from a large number of Ml lines simultaneously, enabling rapid localization and plan view imaging of voids in lines and vias with backscattered electron (BSE) imaging in a scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Sequential cross sections of individual voided vias enabled them to develop a 3-d reconstruction of these voids. This information clarified how the voids were formed, helping to identify the IC process steps that needed to be changed.

Crystalline silicon continues to be the dominant semiconductor material used for terrestrial photovoltaics. This paper discusses the scientific issues associated with silicon photovoltaics processing, and cell design that may yield cell and module performance improvements that are both evolutionary and revolutionary in nature. We first survey critical issues in ''thick'' crystalline silicon photovoltaics, including novel separations processes for impurity removal, impurity and defect fundamentals, interface passivation, the role of hydrogen. Second, we outline emerging opportunities for creation of a very different ''thin-layer'' silicon cell structure, including the scientific issues and engineering challenges associated with thin-layer silicon processing and cell design.

There has been considerable interest in developing dry processes which can effectively replace wet processing in the manufacture of large area photovoltaic devices. Environmental and health issues are a driver for this activity because wet processes generally increase worker exposure to toxic and hazardous chemicals and generate large volumes of liquid hazardous waste. Our work has been directed toward improving the performance of screen-printed solar cells while using plasma processing to reduce hazardous chemical usage.

The joint USNRC/CEC consequence uncertainty study was chartered after the development of two new probabilistic accident consequence codes, MACCS in the U.S. and COSYMA in Europe. Both the USNRC and CEC had a vested interest in expanding the knowledge base of the uncertainty associated with consequence modeling, and teamed up to co-sponsor a consequence uncertainty study. The information acquired from the study was expected to provide understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of current models as well as a basis for direction of future research. This paper looks at the elicitation process implemented in the joint study and discusses some of the uncertainty distributions provided by eight panels of experts from the U.S. and Europe that were convened to provide responses to the elicitation. The phenomenological areas addressed by the expert panels include atmospheric dispersion and deposition, deposited material and external doses, food chain, early health effects, late health effects and internal dosimetry.

In this study we analyze the feasibility of three dimensional (3D) electromagnetic (EM) imaging from a single borehole. The proposed logging tool consists of three mutually orthogonal magnetic dipole sources and multiple three component magnetic field receivers. A sensitivity analysis indicates that the most important sensor configuration for providing 3D geological information about the borehole consists of a transmitter with moment aligned parallel to the axis of the borehole, and receivers aligned perpendicular to the axis. The standard coaxial logging configuration provides the greatest depth of sensitivity compared to other configurations, but offers no information regarding 3D structure. Two other tool configurations in which both the source and receiver are aligned perpendicular to the borehole axis provide some directional information and therefore better image resolution, but not true 3D information. A 3D inversion algorithm has been employed to demonstrate the plausibility of 3D inversion using data collected with the proposed logging tool. This study demonstrates that an increase in image resolution results when three orthogonal sources are incorporated into the logging tool rather than a single axially aligned source.

We report highly efficient, low-threshold-current edge-emitting lasers where both the optical waveguide and lateral current confinement are achieved by lateral selective oxidation of AlGaAs. External differential quantum efficiency in excess of 95% and 40% wall-plug efficiency are demonstrated in 600 {micro}m-long devices without facet coatings. Shorter, 300-{micro}m-long, uncoated devices have <6 mA threshold currents. This high-performance is a combined result of placement of the oxide layers so as to achieve the minimum optical mode volume and bi-parabolic grading of the Al{sub x}Ga{sub 1{minus}x}As heteroepitaxy for minimum height/potential barriers, less than 15 meV, created by the wide-energy-gap layers required for selective wet oxidation. Since the initial development of wet AlGaAs oxidation methods, a number of oxidized edge-emitting laser concepts have been tried. The most successful of these have used lateral selective oxidation of AlGaAs layers between 100 and 300 nm thickness. These layers have been used as current restricting apertures or for both current restriction and lateral waveguiding. Use of an oxide layer above and below the laser active region offers the ability to create a self-aligned waveguide with current apertures on both sides of the pn-junction in a process requiring only one epitaxial growth step. Previous use apertures for these dual purposes resulted multi-moded lasers with reduced efficiency and elevated threshold current density due to non-ideal formation of the waveguide and possibly excess stress caused by the thick (300 nm) oxide layer.

It is shown that lattice disorder induced by Nb and Ca substitution has a strong influence on the dielectric and relaxational properties of KTaO{sub 3}. Both substituents are believed to occupy off-center positions at the Ta site, and the difference in valence between the Ca{sup 2+} and Ta{sup 5+} ions leads to the formation of oxygen vacancies (V{sub 0}). Specifically, for a KTa{sub 1{minus}x}Nb{sub x}O{sub 3}:Ca crystal with x = 0.023 and with a 0.055 at.% Ca doping they observe: (1) a ferroelectric transition at atmospheric pressure (1 bar); (2) a large enhancement of the transition temperature by Ca doping; (3) a pressure-induced crossover from ferroelectric-to-relaxor behavior; (4) the impending vanishing of the relaxor phase at high pressure; (5) the reorientation of the Ca-oxygen vacancy (Ca:V{sub 0}) pair defect; and (6) the variation of the energetics and dynamics of this reorientation with pressure. Most of these effects are associated with Nb- and Ca-induced dipolar entities and appear to be general features of soft mode ferroelectrics with random-site polar nanodomains. The ferroelectric-to-relaxor crossover can be understood in terms of a large decrease with pressure in the correlation length among polar nanodomains--a unique property of soft ferroelectric mode systems.

Some time ago we presented evidence that, under nonhydrostatic loading, the F{sub R1} {r_arrow} A{sub O} polymorphic transformation of unpoled PZT 95/5-2Nb (PNZT) ceramic began when the maximum compressive stress equaled the hydro-static pressure at which the transformation otherwise took place. Recently we showed that this simple criterion did not apply to nonhydrostatically compressed, poled ceramic. However, unpoled ceramic is isotropic, whereas poled ceramic has a preferred crystallographic orientation and is mechanically anisotropic. If we further assume that the transformation depends not only on the magnitude of the compressive stress, but also its orientation relative to some feature(s) of PNZT's crystallography, then these disparate results can be qualitatively resolved. It has long been known that this transformation can be triggered in uniaxial compression. Our modified hypothesis makes two predictions for transformation of unpoled polycrystals under uniaxial stress: (i) the transformation should begin when the maximum compressive stress, {sigma}{sub 1}, equals the hydrostatic pressure for transformation, and (ii) a steadily increasing axial stress should be required to drive the transformation.

A hybrid FEM/MoM model has been implemented to compute the coupling of fields into a cavity through narrow slot apertures having depth. The model utilizes the slot model of Warne and Chen [23]-[29] which takes into account the depth of the slot, wall losses, and inhomogeneous dielectrics in the slot region. The cavity interior is modeled with the mixed-order, covariant-projection hexahedral elements of Crowley [32]. Results are given showing the accuracy and generality of the method for modeling geometrically complex slot-cavity combinations.

Characterization tools have been developed to study the performance characteristics and reliability of surface micromachined actuators. These tools include (1) the ability to electrically stimulate or stress the actuator, (2) the capability to visually inspect the devices in operation, (3) a method for capturing operational information, and (4) a method to extract performance characteristics from the operational information. Additionally, a novel test structure has been developed to measure electrostatic forces developed by a comb drive actuator.

We generally use large-scale hydrocodes to study the dynamic response of targets to influence pulsed radiation loads. However, for many applications where the desired solution does not require a detailed specification of pressure- or velocity-time histories, there are simple analytic approaches that can yield surprisingly accurate results. Examples include determining either the final velocity of a radiation-driven flying plate or the impulse delivered to a structural element. These methods are all based on relatively straightforward use of conservation of mass and momentum, but they typically need one scaling-law parameter. In this context, short pulse means short compared to the characteristic time of the desired response, which allows for the phenomena to be essentially uncoupled. High fluence means that the input energy is great enough to yield vaporization or blowoff of one or more portions of the configuration. We discuss some of these methods, give examples, and suggest limitations and criteria for their use.

Heavy ion TOF ERD combined with energy detection (E-TOF-ERD) is a powerful analytical technique taking advantage of the following facts: the scattering cross section is usually very high ({approximately}10{sup {minus}21} cm{sup 2}/sr) compared to regular He RBS ({approximately}10{sup {minus}25} cm{sup 2}/sr), contrary to what happens with the energy resolution in ordinary surface solid barrier detectors, time resolution is almost independent of the atomic mass of the detected element, and the detection in coincidence of time and energy signals allows for the mass separation of overlapping signals with the same energy (or time of flight). Measurements on several oxides have been performed with the E-TOF-ERD set up at Sandia National Laboratories using an incident beam of 10-15 MeV Au. The information on the composition of the sample is obtained from the time domain spectrum, which is converted to energy domain, and then, using existing software codes, the analysis is performed. During the quantification of the results, they have found problems related to the interaction of the beam with the sample and to the tabulated values of the stopping powers for heavy ions.

Characterization tools have been developed to study the performance characteristics and reliability of surface micromachined actuators. These tools include (1) the ability to electrically stimulate or stress the actuator, (2) the capability to visually inspect the devices in operation, (3) a method for capturing operational information, and (4) a method to extract performance characteristics from the operational information. Additionally, a novel test structure has been developed to measure electrostatic forces developed by a comb drive actuator.

Direct metal deposition technologies produce complex, near net shape components from CAD solid models. Most of these techniques fabricate a component by melting powder in a laser weld pool, rastering this weld bead to form a layer, and additively constructing subsequent layers. This talk describes a new direct metal deposition process, known as WireFeed, whereby a small diameter wire is used instead of powder as the feed material to fabricate components. Currently, parts are being fabricated from stainless steel. Microscopy studies show the WireFeed parts to be fully dense with fine microstructural features. Initial mechanical tests show stainless steel parts to have good strength values with retained ductility.

Experimental conditions are studied to optimize transient experiments for estimating temperature dependent thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity. Thermal properties are assumed to vary linearly with temperature; a total of four parameters describe linearly varying thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity. A numerical model of experimental configurations is studied to determine the optimum conditions to conduct the experiment. The criterion D-optimality is used to study the sensor locations, heating duration and magnitude, and experiment duration for finite and semi-infinite configurations. Results indicate that D-optimality is an order of magnitude larger for the finite configuration and hence will provide estimates with a smaller confidence region.

A novel solution method has been developed to solve the linear Boltzmann equation on an unstructured triangular mesh. Instead of tackling the first-order form of the equation, this approach is based on the even/odd-parity form in conjunction with the conventional mdtigroup discrete-ordinates approximation. The finite element method is used to treat the spatial dependence. The solution method is unique in that the space-direction dependence is solved simultaneously, eliminating the need for the conventional inner iterations, and the method is well suited for massively parallel computers.

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed on dense liquids of polyethylene chains of 24 and 66 united atom CH{sub 2} units. A series of models was studied ranging in atomistic detail from coarse-grained, freely-jointed, tangent site chains to realistic, overlapping site models subjected to bond angle restrictions and torsional potentials. These same models were also treated with the self-consistent, polymer reference interaction site model (PRISM) theory. The intramolecular and total structure factors, as well as, the intermolecular radial distribution functions g(r) and direct correlation functions C(r) were obtained from theory and simulation. Angular correlation functions were also simulation obtained from the MD simulations. Comparisons between theory and reveal that PRISM theory works well for computing the intermolecular structure of coarse-grained chain models, but systematically underpredicts the extent of intermolecular packing as more atomistic details are introduced into the model. A consequence of g(r) having insufficient structure is that the theory yields an isothermal compressibility that progressively becomes larger, relative to the simulations, as overlapping the PRISM sites and angular restrictions are introduced into the model. We found that theory could be considerably improved by adding a tail function to C(r) beyond the effective hard core diameter. The range of this tail function was determined by requiring the theory to yield the correct compressibility.