A sinkhole discovered over the edge of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve storage facility at Weeks Island salt dome, Louisiana, led to decommissioning the site during 1995--1998, following extensive diagnostics in 1994. The sinkhole resulted from mine-induced fractures in the salt which took may years to develop, eventually causing fresh water to leak into the storage chamber and dissolve the overlying salt, thus causing overburden collapse into the void. Prior to initiating the oil removal, a freeze wall was constructed at depth around the sinkhole in 1995 to prevent water inflow; a freeze plug will remain in place until the mine is backfilled with brine in 1997--8, and stability is reached. Residual oil will be removed; environmental monitoring has been initiated and will continue until the facility is completely plugged and abandoned, and environmental surety is achieved.
The technology base for Repetitive High Energy Pulsed Power (RHEPP) was originally developed to support defense program applications. As RHEPP technology matures, its potential for use in commercial applications can be explored based on inherent strengths of high average power, high dose rate, cost efficient scaling with power, and potential for long life performance. The 300 kW, 2 MeV RHEPP II accelerator is now in operation as a designated DOE User Facility, exploring applications where high dose-rate (> 10{sup 8} Gy/s) may be advantageous, or very high average power is needed to meet throughput requirements. Material surface and bulk property modification, food safety, and large-scale timber disinfestation are applications presently under development. Work is also in progress to generate the reliability database required for the design of 2nd generation systems.
We studied whether plasma-etching techniques can use screen printed gridlines as etch masks to form self-aligned, patterned-emitter profiles on multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) cells from Solarex Our initial results found a statistically significant improvement of about half an absolute percentage point m cell efficiency when the self-aligned emitter etchback was combined with a PECVD-nitride surface passivation treatment. Some additional improvement in bulk diffusion length was observed when a hydrogen passivation treatment was used in the process. We attempted to gain additional benefits from using an extra-heavy phosphorus emitter diffusion before the gridlines were deposited. However, this required a lusher plasma-etch power to etch back the deeper diffusion and keep the etch time reasonably short. The higher power etch may have damaged the surface and the gridlines so that improvement due to surface passive and reduced gridline contact resistance was inhibited.
Sandia National Laboratories has found that the reliability and failure modes of current-generation network technologies can be effectively modeled using fault tree-based probabilistic logic modeling (PLM) techniques. We have developed fault tree models that include various hierarchical networking technologies and classes of components interconnected in a wide variety of typical and atypical configurations. In this paper we discuss the types of results that can be obtained from PLMs and why these results are of great practical value to network designers and analysts. After providing some mathematical background, we describe the `plug-and-play` fault tree analysis methodology that we have developed for modeling connectivity and the provision of network services in several current- generation network architectures. Finally, we demonstrate the flexibility of the method by modeling the reliability of a hybrid example network that contains several interconnected ethernet, FDDI, and token ring segments. 11 refs., 3 figs., 1 tab.
Production of a full-size divertor cassette involves eight major components. All of the components are mounted on the cassette body. Inner divertor channel components for the vertical target design are being provided by the Japan Home Team. Outer divertor channel components for the vertical target design are being provided by the European and United States Home Teams. Gas box liners are being provided by the Russian Home Team. The full-size components manufactured by the four parties will be shipped to the US Home Team for assembly into a full size divertor cassette. The techniques for assembly and maintenance of the cassette will be demonstrated during this process. The assembled cassette will be tested for proper flow distribution and proof of the filling and draining procedures. The testing will include vacuum leak tightness at full temperature and pressure, cyclic heating to 150 {degrees}C, verification of dimensional accuracy of the assembled components, and application of thermal gradients to measure dimensional stability. The development of the divertor for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) depends on successful R&D efforts on materials, joining, and plasma materials interactions. Results of the development program are presented. The scale-up of the processes developed in the basic research and development tasks is accomplished by producing and high-heat-flux testing medium and full-scale mock- ups. The design of the mock-ups is discussed.
ITER will be the first tokamak having long pulse operation using deuterium-tritium fuel. The problem of designing heat removal structures for steady state in a neutron environment is a major technical goal for the ITER Engineering Design Activity (EDA). The steady state heat flux specified for divertor components is 5 MW/m{sup 2} for normal operation with transients to 15 MW/m{sup 2} for up to 10 s. The selection of materials for plasma facing components is one of the major research activities. Three materials are being considered for the divertor; carbon fiber composites, beryllium, and tungsten. This paper discusses the relative advantages and disadvantages of these materials. The final section of plasma facing materials for the ITER divertor will not be made until the end of the EDA.
This report summarizes available data on ground motions from underground nuclear explosions recorded on and near the Nevada Test Site, with emphasis on the ground motions recorded at stations on Yucca Mountain, the site of a potential high-level radioactive waste repository. Sandia National Laboratories, through the Weapons Test Seismic Investigations project, collected and analyzed ground motion data from NTS explosions over a 14-year period, from 1977 through 1990. By combining these data with available data from earlier, larger explosions, prediction equations for several ground motion parameters have been developed for the Test Site area for underground nuclear explosion sources. Also presented are available analyses of the relationship between surface and downhole motions and spectra and relevant crustal velocity structure information for Yucca Mountain derived from the explosion data. The data and associated analyses demonstrate that ground motions at Yucca Mountain from nuclear tests have been at levels lower than would be expected from moderate to large earthquakes in the region; thus nuclear explosions, while located relatively close, would not control seismic design criteria for the potential repository.
Sandia National Laboratories is operated for the United States Department of Energy by a subsidiary of Lockheed Martin Corporation. National security programs and defense-related environmental programs for DOE comprise 65 percent of Sandia`s work. We are the DOE Defense Programs laboratory responsible for engineering development of all US nuclear weapons and for systems integration of the nuclear weapons with their delivery vehicles. Our responsibilities include design, certification, and assessment of the nonnuclear subsystems of nuclear weapons; safety, security, reliability, and use control; issues associated with production and dismantlement of nuclear weapons; surveillance and support of weapons in the stockpile; and work in nuclear intelligence, nonproliferation, and treaty verification technologies. Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory. Ten percent of our work supports DOE missions in energy science, research, and development. When appropriate, we also perform work for other government agencies, particularly the Department of Defense, in programs where unique competencies built our mission responsibilities can add value. This report discusses the activities of these responsibilities at the Sandia National Laboratories.
Icarus is a 2D Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) code which has been optimized for the parallel computing environment. The code is based on the DSMC method of Bird and models from free-molecular to continuum flowfields in either cartesian (x, y) or axisymmetric (z, r) coordinates. Computational particles, representing a given number of molecules or atoms, are tracked as they have collisions with other particles or surfaces. Multiple species, internal energy modes (rotation and vibration), chemistry, and ion transport are modelled. A new trace species methodology for collisions and chemistry is used to obtain statistics for small species concentrations. Gas phase chemistry is modelled using steric factors derived from Arrhenius reaction rates. Surface chemistry is modelled with surface reaction probabilities. The electron number density is either a fixed external generated field or determined using a local charge neutrality assumption. Ion chemistry is modelled with electron impact chemistry rates and charge exchange reactions. Coulomb collision cross-sections are used instead of Variable Hard Sphere values for ion-ion interactions. The electrostatic fields can either be externally input or internally generated using a Langmuir-Tonks model. The Icarus software package includes the grid generation, parallel processor decomposition, postprocessing, and restart software. The commercial graphics package, Tecplot, is used for graphics display. The majority of the software packages are written in standard Fortran.
Intelligent, agile manufacturing relies on automated programming of digitally controlled processes. Currently, processes such as Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) machining are difficult to automate because of highly restrictive controllers and poor software environments. It is also difficult to utilize sensors and process models for adaptive control, or to integrate machining processes with other tasks within a factory floor setting. As part of a Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program, a CNC machine control system architecture based on object-oriented design and graphical programming has been developed to address some of these problems and to demonstrate automated agile machining applications using platform-independent software.
A growing demand exists for inexpensive and reliable sensors for moisture detection in reduced pressure processing environments. Sandia`s Porous Silicon Capacitor (PSC) sensor appears to be an ideal candidate for this application. This sensor is a solid state device that detects moisture through changes in dielectric constant with water adsorption. Standard microelectronic fabrication techniques are used in its production affording low cost production and ready integration into complex sensor and electronic arrays. This sensor has previously been investigated for moisture detection in fluid streams, however, little effort has been placed on its behavior in a vacuum environment. Sandia`s Sensors in Vacuum (SIV) test facility has been employed to evaluate the performance characteristics of this sensor in vacuum. In addition, a vacuum-based study allows for a more controlled environment in which the intrinsic lower limit for moisture detection and response times to moisture changes can be easily determined quantitatively. This report describes the performance characteristics of a series of sensors from a single production lot. Calibration of these sensors to moisture levels from part per billion to part per hundred concentrations has been performed. The concentration-dependent sensitivity of these sensors is documented. The response time and drift characteristics of these sensors are also discussed. The investigation of a preliminary method for increasing the recovery time of the sensor after moisture exposure is presented. The role of hydrocarbon contamination, a potential problem in some vacuum schemes, is also evaluated. Specific recommendations are made on how to implement this sensor for vacuum applications.
This work was performed jointly by Sandia National Laboratories (Albuquerque, NM) and Siemens Solar Industries (Camarillo, CA) under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA 1248). The work covers the period May 1994 to March 1996. The purpose of the work was to explore the performance potential of commercial, photovoltaic-grade Czochralski (Cz) silicon, and to demonstrate this potential through fabrication of high-efficiency cells and a module. Fabrication of the module was omitted in order to pursue further development of advanced device structures. The work included investigation of response of the material to various fabrication processes, development of advanced cell structures using the commercial material, and investigation of the stability of Cz silicon solar cells. Some important achievements of this work include the following: post-diffusion oxidations were found to be a possible source of material contamination; bulk lifetimes around 75 pts were achieved; efficiencies of 17.6% and 15.7% were achieved for large-area cells using advanced cell structures (back-surface fields and emitter wrap-through); and preliminary investigations into photodegradation in Cz silicon solar cells found that oxygen thermal donors might be involved. Efficiencies around 20% should be possible with commercial, photovoltaic-grade silicon using properly optimized processes and device structures.
Gemini is the coupling of Icarus, the Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) 2-D Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DMSC) code, to MPRES, the University of Houston 2-D finite element plasma reactor code. Thus, Gemini is not a stand alone code. The primary application of Gemini is the simulation of inductively coupled plasma reactors that operate at low pressures (< 10mtorr) where continuum formulations of the transport equations begin to break down. Plasma parameters (electron density (ne), electron temperature (Te) and electrostatic fields (Er and Ez)) are computed in MPRES and interpolated onto the DSMC grid. This allows transport of the neutrals and ions to be performed using the DSMC method while including electron impact reactions and field transport effects. A sample calculation including appropriate input files is given.
This report presents, Aspen. Sandia National Laboratories is developing this new agent-based microeconomic simulation model of the U.S. economy. The model is notable because it allows a large number of individual economic agents to be modeled at a high level of detail and with a great degree of freedom. Some features of Aspen are (a) a sophisticated message-passing system that allows individual pairs of agents to communicate, (b) the use of genetic algorithms to simulate the learning of certain agents, and (c) a detailed financial sector that includes a banking system and a bond market. Results from runs of the model are also presented.
This report presents a summary of the major results from a program to develop a manufacturable, high-efficiency silicon concentrator solar cell and a cost-effective manufacturing facility. The program was jointly funded by the Electric Power Research Institute, Sandia National Laboratories through the Concentrator Initiative, and SunPower Corporation. The key achievements of the program include the demonstration of 26%-efficient silicon concentrator solar cells with design-point (20 W/cm{sup 2}) efficiencies over 25%. High-performance front-surface passivations; that were developed to achieve this result were verified to be absolutely stable against degradation by 475 days of field exposure at twice the design concentration. SunPower demonstrated pilot production of more than 1500 of these cells. This cell technology was also applied to pilot production to supply 7000 17.7-cm{sup 2} one-sun cells (3500 yielded wafers) that demonstrated exceptional quality control. The average efficiency of 21.3% for these cells approaches the peak efficiency ever demonstrated for a single small laboratory cell within 2% (absolute). Extensive cost models were developed through this program and calibrated by the pilot-production project. The production levels achieved indicate that SunPower could produce 7-10 MW of concentrator cells per year in the current facility based upon the cell performance demonstrated during the program.
Spotlight synthetic aperture radar images can be formed from the complex phase history data using two main techniques: (1) polar-to-cartesian interpolation followed by two-dimensional inverse Fourier transform (2DFFT), and (2) convolution backprojection (CBP). CBP has been widely used to reconstruct medical images in computer aided tomography, and only recently has been applied to form synthetic aperture radar imagery. It is alleged that CBP yields higher quality images because (1) all the Fourier data are used and (2) the polar formatted data is used directly to form a 2D Cartesian image and therefore 2D interpolation is not required. This report compares the quality of images formed by CBP and several modified versions of the 2DFFT method. We show from an image quality point of view that CBP is equivalent to first windowing the phase history data and then interpolating to an exscribed rectangle. From a mathematical perspective, we should expect this conclusion since the same Fourier data are used to form the SAR image. We next address the issue of parallel implementation of each algorithm. We dispute previous claims that CBP is more readily parallelizable than the 2DFFT method. Our conclusions are supported by comparing execution times between massively parallel implementations of both algorithms, showing that both experience similar decreases in computation time, but that CBP takes significantly longer to form an image.
The increased power of computers and computer codes makes the use of nonlinear dynamic finite element analyses attractive for use as a tool used in the design and certification of radioactive material transportation packages. For this analysis technique to be acceptable it must be demonstrated. The technique has the ability to accurately capture the response of the packages to accident environments required by the regulations. The best method of demonstrating this ability is via a series of benchmark analyses. In this paper three benchmark problems involving significant inelastic deformations will be discussed. One of the problems has been analyzed using many different finite element codes. The other two problems involve comparison of finite element calculations to the results form physical tests. The ability of the finite element method to accurately capture the response in these three problems indicates the method should be acceptable for radioactive material transportation package design and certification.
An acoustic emission tester for aircraft Halon bottles has been developed. The necessary load is applied by heating the bottles. Acoustic emission is monitored during the heating by six sensors held in position by a special fixture. This fixture was designed to fit spheres with diameters between 5 and 16 inches. A prototype has been undergoing testing in two commercial Halon bottle repair and test facilities. Results to date indicate that about 97 percent of the bottles tested show no indications of any flaws. The other three percent have had indications of flaws in non-critical areas of the bottles. All bottles tested to date have passed the hydrostatic test required by the Department of Transportation (DOT).
The development of smaller circuit volumes in microelectronic applications, particularly Multichip Module (MCM) technology, entails deposition of minute quantities of solder, with volumes on the order of nanoliters. We propose a system for fluxless solder deposition which uses on-demand solder jetting for deposition of 200 micrometer diameter solder droplets onto aluminum pads. This work details the computational modeling performed to provide design parameters for a magneto-hydrodynamic solder jetter (MHD). A dimensionless analysis was used to relate the fluid properties, the orifice length and width, and the droplet size to the amplitude and duration of the pressure pulse. These results were used as the initial inputs for the fluid dynamics model, and subsequent iterations were performed to determine the operational parameters that lead to the formation of stable, single droplets. Results show that a maximum pulse amplitude on the order of 0.5 Mdynes/cm[sup 2] is necessary to dispense molten solder from a 200 micrometer diameter orifice. The size of the droplet was found to vary linearly with the applied pressure pulse. The duration of the pulse ranged from approximately 0.6 to 0.9 milliseconds. A theoretical description of the relationship between the orifice diameter, surface tension, and `Pinch-off` time is given, and is in agreement with the results of the computational model.
Field sampling and rapid gas analysis techniques were used to survey near-surface soil gases for geotechnical diagnostic purposes at the Weeks Island Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) site and other salt dome locations in southern Louisiana. This report presents the complete data, results and interpretations obtained during 1995. Weeks Island 1994 gas survey results are also briefly summarized; this earlier study did not find a definitive correlation between sinkhole No. 1 and soil gases. During 1995, several hundred soil gas samples were obtained and analyzed in the field by gas chromatography, for profiling low concentrations and gas anomalies at ppm to percent levels. The target gases included hydrogen, methane, ethane and ethylene. To supplement the field data, additional gas samples were collected at various site locations for laboratory analysis of target gases at ppb levels. Gases in the near-surface soil originate predominantly from the oil, from petrogenic sources within the salt, or from surface microbial activity. Surveys were conducted across two Weeks Island sinkholes, several mapped anomalous zones in the salt, and over the SPR repository site and its perimeter. Samples were also taken at other south Louisiana salt dome locations for comparative purposes. Notable results from these studies are that elevated levels of hydrogen and methane (1) were positively associated with anomalous gassy or shear zones in the salt dome(s) and (2) are also associated with suspected salt fracture (dilatant) zones over the edges of the SPR repository. Significantly elevated areas of hydrogen, methane, plus some ethane, were found over anomalous shear zones in the salt, particularly in a location over high pressure gas pockets in the salt, identified in the mine prior to SPR operations. Limited stable isotope ratio analyses, SIRA, were also conducted and determined that methane samples were of petrogenic origin, not biogenic.
Three issues concerning phonon-assisted hopping in molecularly doped polymers are considered. The first issue is whether Arrhenius jump rates in the vicinity of room temperature arise from single- phonon or small-polaronic hopping. It is concluded that Arrhenius hopping only occurs above low temperatures through small-polaronic hopping. Second, hopping in molecularly doped polymers is compared with small- polaronic hopping of other systems. Small-polaronic hopping typically occurs between similar chemical structures whose energies are relatively insensitive to their surroundings. Thus, disorder energies experienced by carriers are often modest, values of several hundredths of an eV are common. Nonetheless, the effects of large electric fields on carrier mobilities differ significantly among disordered systems. Data reported for molecularly doped polymers is unlike that for either transition- metal-oxide or chalcogenide glasses. In no case is high-field transport well understood. Finally, I stress that steady-state flow is driven by differences in sites` quasielectrochemical potentials (QECPs). With disorder, differences of QECPs are not simply related to the driving emf. Solution of the (nonlinear) stochastic equations for the QECPs shows that bottlenecks produced by disorder result in nonohmic conduction. Solving the linearized stochastic (disordered resistor network) equations underestimates bottleneck effects. Linearization is inappropriate when interest differences in the QECPs exceed [kappa]T.
Chemometric multivariate calibration methods are rapidly impacting quantitative infrared spectroscopy in many positive ways. The combination of vibrational spectroscopy and chemometrics has been used by industry for quality control and process monitoring. The growth of these methods has been phenomenal in the past decade. Yet, as with any new technology, there are growing pains. The methods are so powerful at finding correlations in the data, that when used without great care they can readily yield results that are not valid for the analysis of future unknown samples. In this paper, the power of the multivariate calibration methods is discussed while pointing out common pitfalls and some remaining challenges that may slow the implementation of chemometrics in research and industry.
An Electrorheological fluid is normally a low-viscosity colloidal suspension, but when an electric field is applied, the fluid undergoes a reversible transition to a solid, being able to support considerable stress without yield. Commercial possibilities for such fluids are enormous, including clutches, brakes, valves,shock absorbers, and stepper motors. However, performance of current fluids is inadequate for many proposed applications. Our goal was to engineer improved fluids by investigating the key technical issues underlying the solid-phase yield stress and the liquid to solid switching time. Our studies focused on field-induced interactions between colloidal particles that lead to solidification, the relation between fluid structure and performance (viscosity, yield stress), and the time evolution of structure in the fluid as the field is switched on or off.
A suite of MATLAB-based code modules has been developed to provide optimal weld schedules, regulating weld process parameters for C0[sub 2] and pulse ND:YAG laser welding methods, and arc welding in support of the Smartweld manufacturing initiative. The optimization methodology consists of mixed genetic and gradient-based algorithms to query semi-empirical, nonlinear algebraic models. The optimization output provides heat-input-efficient welds for user-specified weld dimensions. User querying of all weld models is available to examine sub-optimal schedules. In addition, a heat conduction equation solver for 2-D heat flow is available to provide the user with an additional check of weld thermal effects. The inclusion of thermodynamic properties allows the extension of the empirical models to include materials other than those tested. All solution methods are provided with graphical user interfaces and display pertinent results in two and three-dimensional form. The code architecture provides an extensible framework to add an arbitrary number of modules.
Drill hole USW SD-9 is one of several holes drilled under Site Characterization Plan Study as part of the characterization program at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, which has been proposed as the potential location of a repository for high-level nuclear waste. The SD-9 drill hole is located in the northern part of the potential repository area. Quantitative and semiquantitative data are included in this report for cover recovery, rock-quality designation (RQD), lithophysal cavity abundance, and fracturing. These data are spatially variable, both within and among the major formational-level stratigraphic units. Nonwelded intervals in general exhibit higher recoveries and more intact (higher) RQD values than welded intervals. The most intact, highest-RQD materials encountered within the Topopah Spring belong to the lower 33.3 ft of the middle nonlithophysal zone. This report includes quantitative data for the framework material properties of porosity, bulk and particle density, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. Graphical analysis of variations in these laboratory hydrologic properties indicates first-order control of material properties by the degree of welding and the presence of zeolite minerals. Many major lithostratigraphic contacts are not well expressed in the material-property profiles; contacts of material-property units are related more to changes in the intensity of welding. Approximate in-situ saturation data of samples preserved immediately upon recovery from the hole are included in the data tabulation.
