Publications

The theme of this year`s Annual Meeting is ``Ancient Wisdom-Future Technology.`` The panel assembled for this session has been asked to think metaphorically about the theme and how it relates to their profession of human factors and ergonomics. Originally conceived as a debate centering around the older technologies and research techniques versus the newer ways of finding answers, it was soon realized that there was no dichotomy, but more of a synergy between the old and the new. If human factors is truly a philosophy of design rather than simply a body of knowledge, then one would expect consistency in approach regardless of field of application or new discoveries of human performance. Just as when two or more rivers combine to become a force mightier than the simple summation, the synergistic power of established techniques or knowledge and recent innovation is available to everyone in the profession. The invited panelists represent diverse perspectives in human factors and ergonomics, and this made for a stimulating discussion.

Efficient techniques for rapid tritium removal will be necessary for ITER to meet its physics and engineering goals. One potential technique is transient surface heating by a scanning CO{sub 2} or Nd:Yag laser that would release tritium without the severe engineering difficulties of bulk heating of the vessel. The authors have modeled the heat propagation into a surface layer and find that a multi-kW/cm{sup 2} flux with an exposure time of order 10 ms is suitable to heat a 50 micron co-deposited layer to 1,000--2,000 degrees. Improved wall conditioning may be a significant side benefit. They identify remaining issues that need to be addressed experimentally.

A simultaneous PVDF/VISAR measurement technique was used for isentropic-loading experiments with a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) specimen. The experiments used a graded density impactor accelerated onto a tantalum driver backed with PMMA and then lithium fluoride windows for each experiment. Simultaneous measurements made at each window interface provided precise transit time and particle velocity measurements which can be used to determine the stress-vs-strain loading path using Lagrangian analysis techniques. The experimental technique provides access to 40 GPa stress levels in PMMA under isentropic-loading conditions.

Lightning data, recorded with satellite optical sensors, are compared with extremely low frequency (ELF) and Schumann resonance (SR) data from the Sprites `96 Campaign. The satellite data are broad-band visible events recorded by the M46 satellite payload. Full width at half maximum and optical tail durations from the satellite data are compared with ELF slow tail features and Schumann resonance spectral color. In addition, continuing current estimates were computed for several positive cloud-to-ground (PCG) strokes. These estimates were derived using relative optical intensities from the satellite data and a peak current measurement from National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) data. This assessment of M46 lightning data supports correlations between visible and ELF signatures. More data must be studied for compelling proof.

Providing uncontaminated weapon internal atmosphere samples and measuring their dew points is of paramount importance for enhanced surveillance and accelerated aging. The authors are developing and integrating four types of gas sampling systems for use throughout the weapons complex. They are utilizing tools to extract time/age information from the gas analysis of weapon internal atmospheres.

This paper discusses the reliability of several photovoltaic projects including SMUD`s PV Pioneer project, various projects monitored by Ascension Technology, and the Colorado Parks project. System times-to-failure range from 1 to 16 years, and maintenance costs range from 1 to 16 cents per kilowatt-hour. Factors contributing to the reliability of these systems are discussed, and practices are recommended that can be applied to future projects. This paper also discusses the methodology used to collect and analyze PV system reliability data.

Vapor diffusion in porous media in the presence of its liquid has often been analyzed like air diffusion. The diffusion rate is much lower than in free space due to the presence of the porous medium and any liquid present. However, enhanced vapor diffusion has also been postulated such that the diffusion rate may approach free-space values. The mechanisms postulated to lead to this enhancement include condensation/evaporation across isolated liquid islands in the porous media and an increased temperature gradient in the gas phase. In order to try to understand the mechanisms involved in such an enhancement, pore-scale models have been developed. Vapor diffusion in the presence of liquid islands has been evaluated for a one-dimensional pore network under a concentration gradient. The simulations show that significant enhancement of vapor diffusion is indeed possible in the presence of liquid islands, while air diffusion decreases slightly. While the present pore-scale model indicates that enhanced vapor diffusion is possible, only experimental data can confirm the relevant processes.

Several analysis methods have been applied to evaluate the structure and composition of the electrode/adhesive interfaces i previously fielded M2370 Fire Sets. A method of interfacial fracture at cryogenic temperatures as been employed to expose regions of these interfaces at multiple levels in a SFE stack. Electron microscopy shows that bond failure induced by the fracture is predominantly adhesive with an equal probability of failure of the Au and Cu interfaces. Some evidence for cohesive, indicative of a possible microstructure related to electrical breakdown. Pinhole-free larger regions of adhesive also exist which may explain the observed high resistance in impedance measurements.

Shock-induced depoling of the ferroelectric PZT 95/5 has been utilized in pulsed power applications for many years. Recently, new design and certification requirements have generated a strong interest in numerically simulating the operation of pulsed power devices. Because of a scarcity of relevant experimental data obtained within the past twenty years, we have initiated an extensive experimental study of the dynamic behavior of this material in support of simulation efforts. The experiments performed to date have been limited to examining the behavior of unpoled material. Samples of PZT 95/5 have been shocked to axial stresses from 0.5 to 5.0 GPa in planar impact experiments. Impact face conditions have been recorded using PVDF stress gauges, and transmitted wave profiles have been recorded either at window interfaces or at a free surface using laser interferometry (VISAR). The results significantly extend the stresses examined in prior studies of unpoled material, and ensure that a comprehensive experimental characterization of the mechanical behavior under shock loading is available for continuing development of PZT 95/5 material models.

We describe a new approach to second-order nonlinear optical materials, namely quadrupoling. This approach is valid in the regime of Kleinman (full permutation) symmetry breaking, and thus requires a two- or three dimensional microscopic nonlinearity at wavelengths away from material resonances. This {open_quotes}quadrupolar{close_quotes} nonlinearity arises from the second rank pseudotensor of the rotationally invariant representation of the second-order nonlinear optical tensor. We have experimentally investigated candidate molecules comprised of chiral camphorquinone derivatives by measuring the scalar invariant associated with the rank two pseudotensor using hyper-Rayleigh scattering. We have found sizable scalar figures of merit for several compounds using light for which the second harmonic wavelengths are greater than 100 nm longer than the absorption peak location. At these wavelengths, the quadrupolar scalar is as large as the polar (EFISH) scalar of p-nitroaniline. Prospects for applications are discussed.

Electromagnetic (EM) methods, long used for borehole logging as a formation evaluation tool in developed oil fields, are rarely applied in surface or crosshole configurations or applied in cased wells. This is largely due to the high levels of cultural noise and the preponderance of steel well casing. However, recent experimental success with crosshole EM systems for water and steam flood monitoring using fiberglass cased wells has shown promise in applying these techniques to development and production (D & P) problems. This paper describes technological solutions that will allow for successful application of EM techniques in oil fields, despite surface noise and steel casing. First an example sites the application of long offset logging to map resistivity structure away from the borehole. Next, a successful application of crosshole EM where one of the wells is steel cased is described. The potential application of earth`s field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to map fluid saturation at large distances from the boreholes is also discussed.

A fundamental understanding of aging in an organic material requires that one understand how aging affects the chemical structure of a material, and how these chemical changes are related to the material`s macroscopic properties. This level of understanding is usually achieved by examining the material on a variety of length scales ranging from atomic to meso-scale to macroscopic. The authors are developing and applying several {sup 13}C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy experiments to characterize the aging process of organic materials over a broad range of length scales. Examples of studies which range from atomic to macroscopic will be presented.

Errors in model parameters, sensing, and control are inevitably present in real robot systems. These errors must be considered in order to automatically plan robust solutions to many manipulation tasks. Lozano-Perez, Mason, and Taylor proposed a formal method for synthesizing robust actions in the presence of uncertainty; this method has been extended by several subsequent researchers. All of these results presume the existence of worst-case error bounds that describe the maximum possible deviation between the robot`s model of the world and reality. This paper examines the problem of measuring these error bounds for a real robot workcell. These measurements are difficult, because of the desire to completely contain all possible deviations while avoiding bounds that are overly conservative. The authors present a detailed description of a series of experiments that characterize and quantify the possible errors in visual sensing and motion control for a robot workcell equipped with standard industrial robot hardware. In addition to providing a means for measuring these specific errors, these experiments shed light on the general problem of measuring worst-case errors.

Multicrystalline-silicon (mc-Si) materials and cells feature large areal variations in material and junction quality. The regions with poor device quality have been predicted to have more recombination current at forward bias than a simple area-weighted average due to the parallel interconnection of the good and bad regions by the front junction. The authors have examined the effect of gettering on areal inhomogeneities in large-area mc-Si cells. Cells with large areal inhomogeneities were found to have increased non-ideal recombination current, which is in line with theoretical predictions. Phosphorus-diffusion and aluminum-alloy gettering of mc-Si was found to reduce the areal inhomogeneities and improve large-area mc-Si device performance.

Inductively coupled plasma etching of GaN, AlN, InN, InGaN and InAlN was investigated in CH{sub 4}/H{sub 2}/Ar plasmas as a function of dc bias, and ICP power. The etch rates were generally quite low, as is common for III-nitrides in CH{sub 4} based chemistries. The etch rates increased with increasing dc bias. At low rf power (150 W), the etch rates increased with increasing ICP power, while at 350 W rf power, a peak was found between 500 and 750 W ICP power. The etched surfaces were found to be smooth, while selectivities of etch were {le} 6 for InN over GaN, AlN, InGaN and InAlN under all conditions.

Gas guns and velocity interferometric techniques have been used to determine the loading behavior of an AD995 alumina rod 19 mm in diameter by 75 mm and 150 mm long, respectively. Graded-density materials were used to impact both bare and sleeved alumina rods while the velocity interferometer was used to monitor the axial-velocity of the free end of the rods. Results of these experiments demonstrate that (1) a time-dependent stress pulse generated during impact allows an efficient transition from the initial uniaxial strain loading to a uniaxial stress state as the stress pulse propagates through the rod, and (2) the intermediate loading rates obtained in this configuration lie between split Hopkinson bar and shock-loading techniques.

The B61 accelerated aging unit (AAU) provided a unique opportunity to document the effects of a controlled, long-term thermal cycling environment on the aging of materials used in the device. This experiment was of particular interest to solder technologists because thermal cycling environments are a predominant source of solder joint failures in electronic assemblies. Observations of through hole solder joints in the MC2918 Firing Set from the B61 AAU did not reveal signs of catastrophic failure. Quantitative analyses of the microstructural metrics of intermetallic compound layer thickness and Pb-rich phase particle distributions indicated solder joint aging that was commensurate with the accelerated aging environment. The effects of stress-enhanced coarsening of the Pb-rich phase were also documented.

Passive autocatalytic recombiners (PARs) are being considered by the nuclear power industry as a combustible gas control system in operating plants and advanced light water reactor (ALWR) containments for design basis events. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has developed systems and methodologies to measure the amount of hydrogen that can be depleted in a containment by a PAR. Experiments were performed that determined the hydrogen depletion rate of a PAR in the presence of steam and also evaluated the effect of scale (number of cartridges) on the PAR performance at both low and high hydrogen concentrations.

The US Department of Energy has recently completed a topical safety analysis report outlining the design and operation of a Centralized Interim Storage Facility for spent commercial nuclear fuel. During the course of the design, dose assessments indicated the need for remote operation of many of the cask handling operations. Use of robotic equipment was identified as a desirable handling solution that is capable of automating many of the operations to maintain throughput, and sufficiently flexible to handle five or more different storage cask designs in varying numbers on a given day. This paper discusses the facility and the dose assessment leading to this choice, and reviews factors to be considered when choosing robotics or automation. Further, a new computer simulation tool to quantify dose to humans working in radiological environments, the Radiological Environment Modeling System (REMS), is introduced. REMS has been developed to produce a more accurate estimate of dose to radiation workers in new activities with radiological hazards.

This document describes a Software Development Methodology for High Consequence Systems. A High Consequence System is a system whose failure could lead to serious injury, loss of life, destruction of valuable resources, unauthorized use, damaged reputation or loss of credibility or compromise of protected information. This methodology can be scaled for use in projects of any size and complexity and does not prescribe any specific software engineering technology. Tasks are described that ensure software is developed in a controlled environment. The effort needed to complete the tasks will vary according to the size, complexity, and risks of the project. The emphasis of this methodology is on obtaining the desired attributes for each individual High Consequence System.

Vector network analyzers are a convenient way to measure scattering parameters of a variety of microwave devices. However, these instruments, unlike oscilloscopes for example, require a relatively high degree of user knowledge and expertise. Due to the complexity of the instrument and of the calibration process, there are many ways in which an incorrect measurement may be produced. The Microwave Project, which is part of SNL`s Primary Standards laboratory, routinely uses check standards to verify that the network analyzer is operating properly. In the past, these measurements were recorded manually and, sometimes, interpretation of the results was problematic. To aid the measurement assurance process, a software program was developed to automatically measure a check standard and compare the new measurements with a historical database of measurements of the same device. The program acquires new measurement data from selected check standards, plots the new data against the mean and standard deviation of prior data for the same check standard, and updates the database files for the check standard. The program is entirely menu-driven requiring little additional work by the user. This report describes the function of the software, including a discussion of its capabilities, and the way in which the software is used in the lab.

Three Milliwatt Generator Heat Source (MWGHS) shelf-life-related capsules were pressure-burst tested after thermal aging. Shelf-life capsules PB-08-03 (MC2893) and MPT-11-33 (MC3599) were tested at 1,010 C and capsule PB-07-13 (MC2893) was tested at 1,100 C. Subsequent to pressure-burst testing, each capsule was bubble-leak tested then metallographically examined. Post-mortem evaluation consisted of metallography, microhardness, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and oxygen and nitrogen analysis. Capsules PB-08-03 and PB-07-13 failed by elevated temperature stress-rupture in the coarse-grained cap to body welds, as has been documented for previous capsules. Pressure-burst testing of capsule MPT-11-33 was terminated prior to failure after 739 hours on test at 1,010 C, however, microscopic examination of the weld indicated that similar failure had began to occur in the interior portion of the capsule to body weld. Evidence was obtained indicating that metallurgical changes occurred during the pressure-burst test performed at 1,100 C. The metallurgical observations of a preferred site for elevated temperature deformation and fracture (the coarse-grained weld region) and structural instability (the property changes during testing at 1,100 C) need to be considered in component lifetime prediction and modeling efforts.

This paper briefly describes a prototype sensor for detecting land mines placed in shallow water. An automatic system was developed which incorporates chemical concentration technology, an ion mobility spectrometer, and control and fluid movement subsystems. The system design was successfully demonstrated using laboratory instruments and equipment. Components for the portable unit, which will weigh less than 20 pounds, have been fabricated; field demonstrations will be completed by spring 1998. 4 figs.

This paper discusses recent experiments in the manipulation and assembly of parts with 100 micron outside dimensions and submicron tolerances. The objective of this work is to develop a micromanipulation workcell which can automatically assemble LIGA (Lithography Galvonoforming Abforming) parts using an assembly plan and a CAD drawing of each of the components. The workcell consists of an AdeptOne robot, precision stages, long distance microscope, and a high aspect ratio modeled polysilicon tweezers for picking up the parts. Fourier optics methods are used to generate synthetic microscope images from CAD drawings. These synthetic images are used off-line to test image processing routines under varying magnifications an depths of field. They also provide reference image features which are used to visually servo the true part to the desired position.

Designers of components-based, real-time systems need to guarantee to correctness of soft-ware and its output. Complexity of a system, and thus the propensity for error, is best characterized by the number of states a component can encounter. In many cases, large numbers of states arise where the processing is highly dependent on context. In these cases, states are often missed, leading to errors. The following are proposals for compactly specifying system states which allow the factoring of complex components into a control module and a semantic processing module. Further, the need for methods that allow for the explicit representation of ambiguity and uncertainty in the design of components is discussed. Presented herein are examples of real-world problems which are highly context-sensitive or are inherently ambiguous.