In response to personal protective equipment (PPE) shortages in the United States due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019, two models of N95 respirators were evaluated for reuse after gamma radiation sterilization. Gamma sterilization is attractive for PPE reuse because it can sterilize large quantities of material through hermetically sealed packaging, providing safety and logistic benefits. The Gamma Irradiation Facility at Sandia National Laboratories was used to irradiate N95 filtering facepiece respirators to a sterilization dose of 25 kGy(tissue). Aerosol particle filtration performance testing and electrostatic field measurements were used to determine the efficacy of the respirators after irradiation. Both respirator models exhibited statistically significant decreases in particle filtering efficiencies and electrostatic potential after irradiation. The largest decrease in capture efficiency was 40–50% and peaked near the 200 nm particle size. The key contribution of this effort is correlating the electrostatic potential change of individual filtration layer of the respirator with the decrease filtration efficiency after irradiation. This observation occurred in both variations of N95 respirator that we tested. Electrostatic potential measurement of the filtration layer is a key indicator for predicting filtration efficiency loss.
This study evaluated gamma irradiation for sterilization and reuse of two models of N95 respirators after gamma radiation sterilization as a method to increase availability of N95 respirators during a shortage. The Sandia National Laboratories Gamma Irradiation Facility was used to irradiate two different models of N95 filtering facepiece respirators at doses ranging from 0 kGy(tissue) to 50 kGy(tissue). The following tests were used to determine the efficacy of the respirator after irradiation sterilization: Ambient Aerosol Condensation Nuclei Counter Quantitative Fit Test, tensile test, strain cycling, oscillatory dynamic mechanical analysis, microscopic image analysis of fiber layers, and electrostatic field measurements. Both of the respirator models exhibited statistically significant changes after gamma irradiation as shown by the Quantitative Fit Test, electrostatic testing and the aerosol testing. The change in electrostatic charge of the filter was correlated with a reduction in capturing particles near the 200 nm size by approximately 40-50%. Both tested respirators showed statistically significant changes associated with gamma sterilization. However, our results indicate that choices in materials and manufacturing methods to achieve N95 filtration lead to different magnitudes of damage when exposed to gamma radiation at sterilization relevant doses. This damage results in lower filtration performance. While our sample size (2 different types of respirators) was small, we did observe a change in electrostatic properties on a filter layer that coincided with the failure on the Quantitative Fit Test and reduction in aerosol filtering efficiency. Key Words: N95 respirators, respirators, airborne transmission, pandemic prevention, COVID-19, gamma sterilization
This study evaluated gamma irradiation for sterilization and reuse of two models of N95 respirators after gamma radiation sterilization as a method to increase availability of N95 respirators during a shortage. The Sandia National Laboratories Gamma Irradiation Facility was used to irradiate two different models of N95 filtering facepiece respirators at doses ranging from 0 kGy(tissue) to 50 kGy(tissue). The following tests were used to determine the efficacy of the respirator after irradiation sterilization: Ambient Aerosol Condensation Nuclei Counter Quantitative Fit Test, tensile test, strain cycling, oscillatory dynamic mechanical analysis, microscopic image analysis of fiber layers, and electrostatic field measurements. Both of the respirator models exhibited statistically significant changes after gamma irradiation as shown by the Quantitative Fit Test, electrostatic testing and the aerosol testing. The change in electrostatic capability of the filter reduced the efficiency of challenging particles near the 200 nm size by approximately 40-50%. Both tested respirators showed statistically significant changes associated with gamma sterilization. However, our results indicate that choices in materials and manufacturing methods to achieve N95 filtration lead to different magnitudes of damage when exposed to gamma radiation at sterilization relevant doses. This damage results in lower filtration performance. While our sample size (2 different types of respirators) was small, we did observe a change in electrostatic properties on a filter layer that coincided with the failure on the Quantitative Fit Test.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) NU-1000 and UiO-66 are herein exposed to two different gamma irradiation doses and dose rates and analyzed to determine the structural features that affect their stability in these environments. MOFs have shown promise for the capture and sensing of off-gases at civilian nuclear energy reprocessing sites, nuclear waste repositories, and nuclear accident locations. However, little is understood about the structural features of MOFs that contribute to their stability levels under the ionizing radiation conditions present at such sites. This study is the first of its kind to explore the structural features of MOFs that contribute to their radiolytic stability. Both NU-1000 and UiO-66 are MOFs that contain Zr metal-centers with the same metal absorption cross section. However, the two MOFs exhibit different linker connectivities, linker aromaticities, node densities, node connectivities, and interligand separations. In this study, NU-1000 and UiO-66 were exposed to high (423.3 Gy/min, 23 min, and 37 s) and low (0.78 Gy/min, 4320 min) dose rates of 60Co gamma irradiation. NU-1000 displayed insignificant radiation damage under both dose rates due to its high linker connectivity, low node density, and low node connectivity. However, low radiation dose rates caused considerable damage to UiO-66, a framework with lower aromaticity and smaller interligand separation. Results suggest that chronic, low-radiation environments are more detrimental to Zr MOF stability than acute, high-radiation conditions.
The behavior of commercially available potential obscurants for cobalt-60 (60Co) wet-source storage industrial irradiator facilities (IRFs) were further evaluated for corrosive behavior of Nordion C-188 pencil stubs and obscurant properties under radiation exposure (60Co). The potential obscurants studied included: titania aqueous dispersions (TAD - water soluble white paint), Chlorazol Black (CBOD - Chlorazol Black organic dye), powdered milk (COW - calcium obscurant in water), diatomaceous earth (DEA - diatomaceous earth additive), and rhodamine 6G (R6G). For corrosion efforts, stubs from an inert C-188 pencil-source rod were soaked in obscurant solutions and visually inspected. For radiation stability, obscurant samples were exposed to 60Co radiation sources at 207 rad/s. The results from these studies reveal: the obscurants had no impact on the surrogate samples and may assist in terms of corrosion resistance; materials that did not rely on organic compounds to provide obscurance performed the best, as the organic compounds decomposed too rapidly in the high radiation environment, whereas the materials survived.
This paper investigates the effects of high dose rate ionizing radiation and total ionizing dose (TID) on tantalum oxide (TaOx) memristors. Transient data were obtained during the pulsed exposures for dose rates ranging from approximately 5.0 ×107 rad(Si)/s to 4.7 ×108 rad(Si)/s and for pulse widths ranging from 50 ns to 50 μs. The cumulative dose in these tests did not appear to impact the observed dose rate response. Static dose rate upset tests were also performed at a dose rate of ~3.0 ×108 rad(Si)/s. This is the first dose rate study on any type of memristive memory technology. In addition to assessing the tolerance of TaOx memristors to high dose rate ionizing radiation, we also evaluated their susceptibility to TID. The data indicate that it is possible for the devices to switch from a high resistance off-state to a low resistance on-state in both dose rate and TID environments. The observed radiation-induced switching is dependent on the irradiation conditions and bias configuration. Furthermore, the dose rate or ionizing dose level at which a device switches resistance states varies from device to device; the enhanced susceptibility observed in some devices is still under investigation. As a result, numerical simulations are used to qualitatively capture the observed transient radiation response and provide insight into the physics of the induced current/voltages.
Room temperature radiolysis, density functional theory, and various nanoscale characterization methods were used to synthesize and fully describe Ni-based alloy nanoparticles (NPs) that were synthesized at room temperature. These complementary methods provide a strong basis in understanding and describing metastable phase regimes of alloy NPs whose reaction formation is determined by kinetic rather than thermodynamic reaction processes. Four series of NPs, (Ag-Ni, Pd-Ni, Co-Ni, and W-Ni) were analyzed and characterized by a variety of methods, including UV-vis, TEM/HRTEM, HAADF-STEM and EFTEM mapping. In the first focus of research, AgNi and PdNi were studied. Different ratios of Ag{sub x}- Ni{sub 1-x} alloy NPs and Pd{sub 0.5}- Ni{sub 0.5} alloy NP were prepared using a high dose rate from gamma irradiation. Images from high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) show that the Ag-Ni NPs are not core-shell structure but are homogeneous alloys in composition. Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) maps show the homogeneity of the metals in each alloy NP. Of particular interest are the normally immiscible Ag-Ni NPs. All evidence confirmed that homogeneous Ag-Ni and Pd-Ni alloy NPs presented here were successfully synthesized by high dose rate radiolytic methodology. A mechanism is provided to explain the homogeneous formation of the alloy NPs. Furthermore, studies of Pd-Ni NPs by in situ TEM (with heated stage) shows the ability to sinter these NPs at temperatures below 800 C. In the second set of work, CoNi and WNi superalloy NPs were attempted at 50/50 concentration ratios using high dose rates from gamma irradiation. Preliminary results on synthesis and characterization have been completed and are presented. As with the earlier alloy NPs, no evidence of core-shell NP formation occurs. Microscopy results seem to indicate alloying occurred with the CoNi alloys. However, there appears to be incomplete reduction of the Na{sub 2}WO{sub 4} to form the W{sup 2+} ion in solution; the predominance of WO{sup +} appears to have resulted in a W-O-Ni complex that has not yet been fully characterized.