Thermal batteries can experience thermal runaway under certain usage conditions. This can lead to safety issues for personnel and cause damage to associated test equipment if the battery thermally self destructs. This report discusses a number of thermal and design related issues that can lead to catastrophic destruction of thermal batteries under certain conditions. Contributing factors are identified and mitigating actions are presented to minimize or prevent undesirable thermal runaway.
The Velocity Interferometer System for Any Reflector (VISAR) is a widely used diagnostic at Sandia National Laboratories. Although the operating principles of the VISAR are well established, recently deployed systems (such as the fast push-pull and air delay VISAR) require more careful consideration, and many common assumptions about VISAR are coming into question. This report presents a comprehensive review of VISAR analysis to address these issues. Detailed treatment of several interferometer configurations is given to identify important aspects of the operation and characterization of VISAR systems. The calculation of velocity from interferometer measurements is also described. The goal is to derive the standard VISAR analysis relationships, indicate when these relationships are valid, and provide alternative methods when the standard analysis fails.
DEDICOM is an algebraic model for analyzing intrinsically asymmetric relationships, such as the balance of trade among nations or the flow of information among organizations or individuals. It provides information on latent components in the data that can be regarded as ''properties'' or ''aspects'' of the objects, and it finds a few patterns that can be combined to describe many relationships among these components. When we apply this technique to adjacency matrices arising from directed graphs, we obtain a smaller graph that gives an idealized description of its patterns. Three-way DEDICOM is a higher-order extension of the model that has certain uniqueness properties. It allows for a third mode of the data, such as time, and permits the analysis of semantic graphs. We present an improved algorithm for computing three-way DEDICOM on sparse data and demonstrate it by applying it to the adjacency tensor of a semantic graph with time-labeled edges. Our application uses the Enron email corpus, from which we construct a semantic graph corresponding to email exchanges among Enron personnel over a series of 44 months. Meaningful patterns are recovered in which the representation of asymmetries adds insight into the social networks at Enron.
Ceramic tapes and papers were evaluated for potential use as separators in high-temperature thermal batteries. The bulk of the tests involved fiberglass tape and borosilicate filter discs. Quartz (SiO{sub 2}) and zirconia (ZrO{sub 2}) materials were also examined to a limited extent. In addition, custom-prepared MgO-coated ceramic discs from Inventek Inc. were evaluated as separators. The tapes and paper discs were impregnated with LiCl-KCl eutectic or LiCl-LiBr-LiF electrolytes using three different techniques. Test discs were punched from the tapes and papers, impregnated with electrolyte and evaluated as separators in Li(Si)/FeS{sub 2} single cells at 400 or 500 C at a steady-state current of 63 or 125 mA/cm{sup 2}. The performance of single cells containing these discs generally improved with increased electrolyte loading for most of the materials in the case of the LiCl-KCl eutectic. Better results were obtained with the paper filter discs than with the tapes. The best results with the paper discs were obtained with Whatman GF/A filter discs. Active lives for cells with these separators were about 85% of standard cells with pressed-powder separators. Good results were obtained in one battery test with the eutectic electrolyte. Mixed results were obtained with the LiCl-LiBr-LiF electrolyte under similar conditions. Higher loadings of electrolyte did not always translate into improved cell performance. Self-discharge reactions are believed responsible. The best overall results were obtained with the Inventek separators. Based on the results of this study, more work in this technology area is merited.
A study was performed that examined the microstructure and mechanical properties of 63Sn-37Pb (wt.%, Sn-Pb) solder joints made to thick film layers on low-temperature co-fired (LTCC) substrates. The thick film layers were combinations of the Dupont{trademark} 4596 (Au-Pt-Pd) conductor and Dupont{trademark} 5742 (Au) conductor, the latter having been deposited between the 4596 layer and LTCC substrate. Single (1x) and triple (3x) thicknesses of the 4596 layer were evaluated. Three footprint sizes were evaluated of the 5742 thick film. The solder joints exhibited excellent solderability of both the copper (Cu) lead and thick film surface. In all test sample configurations, the 5742 thick film prevented side wall cracking of the vias. The pull strengths were in the range of 3.4-4.0 lbs, which were only slightly lower than historical values for alumina (Al{sub 2}O{sub 3}) substrates. General (qualitative) observations: (a) The pull strength was maximized when the total number of thick film layers was between two and three. Fewer that two layers did not develop as strong of a bond at the thick film/LTCC interface; more than three layers and of increased footprint area, developed higher residual stresses at the thick film/LTCC interface and in the underlying LTCC material that weakened the joint. (b) Minimizing the area of the weaker 4596/LTCC interface (e.g., larger 5742 area) improved pull strength. Specific observations: (a) In the presence of vias and the need for the 3x 4596 thick film, the preferred 4596:5742 ratio was 1.0:0.5. (b) For those LTCC components that require the 3x 4596 layer, but do not have vias, it is preferred to refrain from using the 5742 layer. (c) In the absence of vias, the highest strength was realized with a 1x thick 5742 layer, a 1x thick 4596 layer, and a footprint ratio of 1.0:1.0.
Sandia National Laboratories, California (SNL/CA) is a government-owned/contractor-operated laboratory. Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, operates the laboratory for the Department of Energy's (DOE) National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). The DOE/NNSA Sandia Site Office (SSO) oversees operations at the site, using Sandia Corporation as a management and operating contractor. This Site Environmental Report for 2005 was prepared in accordance with DOE Order 231.1A. The report provides a summary of environmental monitoring information and compliance activities that occurred at SNL/CA during calendar year 2005. General site and environmental program information is also included.
Femtosecond pulse laser drilling has evolved to become a preferred process for selective (maskless) micromachining in a variety of materials, including metals, polymers, semiconductors, ceramics, and living tissue. Manufacturers of state-of-the-art femtosecond laser systems advertise the inherent advantage of micromachining with ultra short pulses: the absence of a heat affected zone. In the ideal case, this leads to micro and nano scale features without distortion due to melt or recast. However, recent studies have shown that this is limited to the low fluence regime in many cases. High dynamic range autocorrelation studies were performed on two commercial Ti:sapphire femtosecond laser systems to investigate the possible presence of a nanosecond pedestal in the femtosecond pulse produced by chirped pulse amplification. If confirmed, nanosecond temporal phenomena may explain many of the thermal effects witnessed in high fluence micromachining. The material removal rate was measured in addition to feature morphology observations for percussion micro drilling of metal substrates in vacuum and ambient environments. Trials were repeated with proposed corrective optics installed, including a variable aperture and a nonlinear frequency doubling crystal. Results were compared. Although the investigation of nanosecond temporal phenomena is ongoing, early results have confirmed published accounts of higher removal rates in a vacuum environment.
Four verification test problems are presented for checking the conceptual development and computational implementation of calculations to determine the probability of loss of assured safety (PLOAS) in temperature-dependent systems with multiple weak links (WLs) and strong links (SLs). The problems are designed to test results obtained with the following definitions of loss of assured safety: (1) Failure of all SLs before failure of any WL, (2) Failure of any SL before failure of any WL, (3) Failure of all SLs before failure of all WLs, and (4) Failure of any SL before failure of all WLs. The test problems are based on assuming the same failure properties for all links, which results in problems that have the desirable properties of fully exercising the numerical integration procedures required in the evaluation of PLOAS and also possessing simple algebraic representations for PLOAS that can be used for verification of the analysis.
Sensitivity analysis is a study of how changes in the inputs to a model influence the results of the model. Many techniques have recently been proposed for use when the model is probabilistic. This report considers the related problem of sensitivity analysis when the model includes uncertain numbers that can involve both aleatory and epistemic uncertainty and the method of calculation is Dempster-Shafer evidence theory or probability bounds analysis. Some traditional methods for sensitivity analysis generalize directly for use with uncertain numbers, but, in some respects, sensitivity analysis for these analyses differs from traditional deterministic or probabilistic sensitivity analyses. A case study of a dike reliability assessment illustrates several methods of sensitivity analysis, including traditional probabilistic assessment, local derivatives, and a ''pinching'' strategy that hypothetically reduces the epistemic uncertainty or aleatory uncertainty, or both, in an input variable to estimate the reduction of uncertainty in the outputs. The prospects for applying the methods to black box models are also considered.
Sampling-based methods for uncertainty and sensitivity analysis are reviewed. The following topics are considered: (1) Definition of probability distributions to characterize epistemic uncertainty in analysis inputs, (2) Generation of samples from uncertain analysis inputs, (3) Propagation of sampled inputs through an analysis, (4) Presentation of uncertainty analysis results, and (5) Determination of sensitivity analysis results. Special attention is given to the determination of sensitivity analysis results, with brief descriptions and illustrations given for the following procedures/techniques: examination of scatterplots, correlation analysis, regression analysis, partial correlation analysis, rank transformations, statistical tests for patterns based on gridding, entropy tests for patterns based on gridding, nonparametric regression analysis, squared rank differences/rank correlation coefficient test, two dimensional Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, tests for patterns based on distance measures, top down coefficient of concordance, and variance decomposition.
Qualification of microsystems for weapon applications is critically dependent on our ability to build confidence in their performance, by predicting the evolution of their behavior over time in the stockpile. The objective of this work was to accelerate aging mechanisms operative in surface micromachined silicon microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) with contacting surfaces that are stored for many years prior to use, to determine the effects of aging on reliability, and relate those effects to changes in the behavior of interfaces. Hence the main focus was on 'dormant' storage effects on the reliability of devices having mechanical contacts, the first time they must move. A large number ({approx}1000) of modules containing prototype devices and diagnostic structures were packaged using the best available processes for simple electromechanical devices. The packaging processes evolved during the project to better protect surfaces from exposure to contaminants and water vapor. Packages were subjected to accelerated aging and stress tests to explore dormancy and operational environment effects on reliability and performance. Functional tests and quantitative measurements of adhesion and friction demonstrated that the main failure mechanism during dormant storage is change in adhesion and friction, precipitated by loss of the fluorinated monolayer applied after fabrication. The data indicate that damage to the monolayer can occur at water vapor concentrations as low as 500 ppm inside the package. The most common type of failure was attributed to surfaces that were in direct contact during aging. The application of quantitative methods for monolayer lubricant analysis showed that even though the coverage of vapor-deposited monolayers is generally very uniform, even on hidden surfaces, locations of intimate contact can be significantly depleted in initial concentration of lubricating molecules. These areas represent defects in the film prone to adsorption of water or contaminants that can cause movable structures to adhere. These analysis methods also indicated significant variability in the coverage of lubricating molecules from one coating process to another, even for identical processing conditions. The variability was due to residual molecules left in the deposition chamber after incomplete cleaning. The coating process was modified to result in improved uniformity and total coverage. Still, a direct correlation was found between the resulting static friction behavior of MEMS interfaces, and the absolute monolayer coverage. While experimental results indicated that many devices would fail to start after aging, the modeling approach used here predicted that all the devices should start. Adhesion modeling based upon values of adhesion energy from cantilever beams is therefore inadequate. Material deposition that bridged gaps was observed in some devices, and potentially inhibits start-up more than the adhesion model indicates. Advances were made in our ability to model MEMS devices, but additional combined experimental-modeling studies will be needed to advance the work to a point of providing predictive capability. The methodology developed here should prove useful in future assessments of device aging, however. Namely, it consisted of measuring interface properties, determining how they change with time, developing a model of device behavior incorporating interface behavior, and then using the age-aware interface behavior model to predict device function.
To support the nuclear fusion program at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), a consistent and verifiable method to determine fusion ion temperatures needs to be developed. Since the fusion temperature directly affects the width in the spread of neutron energies produced, a measurement of the neutron energy width can yield the fusion temperature. Traditionally, the spread in neutron energies is measured by using time-of-flight to convert a spread in neutron energies at the source to a spread in time at detector. One potential obstacle to using this technique at the Z facility at SNL is the need to shield the neutron detectors from the intense bremsstrahlung produced. The shielding consists of eight inches of lead and the concern is that neutrons will scatter in the lead, artificially broaden the neutron pulse width and lead to an erroneous measurement. To address this issue, experiments were performed at the University of Rochester's Laboratory for Laser Energetics, which demonstrated that a reliable ion temperature measurement can be achieved behind eight inches of lead shielding. To further expand upon this finding, Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended (MCNPX) was used to simulate the experimental geometric conditions and perform the neutron transport. MCNPX was able to confidently estimate results observed at the University of Rochester.