The 36-module Z accelerator was designed to drive z-pinch loads for weapon-physics and inertial-confinement-fusion experiments, and to serve as a testing facility for pulsed-power research required to develop higher-current drivers. The authors have designed and tested a 10-nH 1.5-m-radius vacuum section for the Z accelerator. The vacuum section consists of four vacuum flares, four conical 1.3-m-radius magnetically-insulated transmission lines, a 7.6-cm-radius 12-post double-post-hole convolute which connects the four outer MITLs in parallel, and a 5-cm-long inner MITL which connects the output of the convolute to a z-pinch load. IVORY and ELECTRO calculations were performed to minimize the inductance of the vacuum flares with the constraint that there be no significant electron emission from the insulator-stack grading rings. Iterative TLCODE calculations were performed to minimize the inductance of the outer MITLs with the constraint that the MITL electron-flow-current fraction be {le} 7% at peak current. The TLCODE simulations assume a 2.5 cm/{micro}s MITL-cathode-plasma expansion velocity. The design limits the electron dose to the outer-MITL anodes to 50 J/g to prevent the formation of an anode plasma. The TLCODE results were confirmed by SCREAMER, TRIFL, TWOQUICK, IVORY, and LASNEX simulations. For the TLCODE, SCREAMER, and TRIFL calculations, the authors assume that after magnetic insulation is established, the electron-flow current launched in the outer MITLs is lost at the convolute. This assumption has been validated by 3-D QUICKSILVER simulations for load impedances {le} 0.36 ohms. LASNEX calculations suggest that ohmic resistance of the pinch and conduction-current-induced energy loss to the MITL electrodes can be neglected in Z power-flow modeling that is accurate to first order. To date, the Z vacuum section has been tested on 100 shots. They have demonstrated they can deliver a 100-ns rise-time 20-MA current pulse to the baseline z-pinch load.
Reactor neutron environments can be used to test/screen the sensitivity of unhardened commercial SRAMs to low-LET neutron-induced upset. Tests indicate both thermal/epithermal (< 1 keV) and fast neutrons can cause upsets in unhardened parts. Measured upset rates in reactor environments can be used to model the upset rate for arbitrary neutron spectra.
Package designs for microelectronics devices have moved from through-hole to surface mount technology in order to increase the printed wiring board real estate available by utilizing both sides of the board. The traditional geometry for surface mount devices is peripheral arrays where the leads are on the edges of the device. As the technology drives towards high input/output (I/O) count (increasing number of leads) and smaller packages with finer pitch (less distance between peripheral leads), limitations on peripheral surface mount devices arise. A solution to the peripheral surface mount issue is to shift the leads to the area under the device. This scheme is called areal array packaging and is exemplified by the ball grid array (BGA) package. In a BGA package, the leads are on the bottom surface of the package in the form of an array of solder balls. The current practice of joining BGA packages to printed wiring boards involves a hierarchy of solder alloy compositions. A high melting temperature ball is typically used for standoff. A promising alternative to current methods is the use of jetting technology to perform monolithic solder ball attachment. This paper describes an areal array jetter that was designed and built to simultaneously jet arrays of solder balls directly onto BGA substrates.
Sandia National Laboratories has designed and proven-in two new Solenoid coils for a highly-reliable electromechanical switch. Mil-Spec Magnetics Inc., Walnut CA manufactured the coils. The new design utilizes two new materials: Liquid Crystal Polymer (Vectra C130) for the bobbin and Thermal Barrier Silicone (VI-SIL V-658) for the encapsulant. The use of these two new materials solved most of the manufacturing problems inherent in the old Sandia design. The coils are easier to precision wind and more robust for handling, testing, and storage. The coils have some unique weapon related safety requirements. The most severe of these requirements is the 400{degrees}C, 1600 V test. The coils must not, and did not, produce any outgassing products to affect the voltage breakdown between contacts in the switch at these temperatures and voltages. Actual coils in switches were tested under these conditions. This paper covers the prove-in of this new coil design.
The use of active feedback compensation to mitigate cutting instabilities in an advanced milling machine is discussed in this paper. A linear structural model delineating dynamics significant to the onset of cutting instabilities was combined with a nonlinear cutting model to form a dynamic depiction of an existing milling machine. The model was validated with experimental data. Modifications made to an existing machine model were used to predict alterations in dynamics due to the integration of active feedback compensation. From simulations, subcomponent requirements were evaluated and cutting enhancements were predicted. Active compensation was shown to enable more than double the metal removal rate over conventional milling machines. 25 refs., 10 figs., 1 tab.
The behavior of copper in the presence of a proximity gettering mechanism and a standard internal gettering mechanism in silicon was studied. He implantation-induced cavities in the near surface region were used as a proximity gettering mechanism and oxygen precipitates in the bulk of the material provided internal gettering sites. Moderate levels of copper contamination were introduced by ion implantation such that the copper was not supersaturated during the anneals, thus providing realistic copper contamination/gettering conditions. Copper concentrations at cavities and internal gettering sites were quantitatively measured after the annealings. In this manner, the gettering effectiveness of cavities was measured when in direct competition with internal gettering sites. The cavities were found to be the dominant gettering mechanism with only a small amount of copper gettered at the internal gettering sites. These results reveal the benefits of a segregation-type gettering mechanism for typical contamination conditions.
Cryptographic authentication (commonly referred to as ``technical authentication`` in Working Group B) is an enabling technology which ensures the integrity of sensor data and security of digital networks under various data security compromise scenarios. The use of cryptographic authentication,however, implies the development of a key management infrastructure for establishing trust in the generation and distribution of cryptographic keys. This paper proposes security and operational requirements for a CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) key management system and, furthermore, presents a public key based solution satisfying the requirements. The key management system is instantiated with trust distribution technologies similar to those currently implemented in industrial public key infrastructures. A complete system solution is developed.
Understanding the mechanisms that impact the performance of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) is essential to the development of optimized designs and drive signals, as well as the qualification of devices for commercial applications. Silicon micromachines include engines that consist of orthogonally oriented linear comb drive actuators mechanically connected to a rotating gear. These gears are as small as 50 {mu}m in diameter and can be driven at rotation rates exceeding 300,000 rpm. Optical techniques offer the potential for measuring long term statistical performance data and transient responses needed to optimize designs and manufacturing techniques. The authors describe the development of Micromachine Optical Probe (MOP) technology for the evaluation of micromachine performance. The MOP approach is based on the detection of optical signals scattered by the gear teeth or other physical structures. They present experimental results for a prototype system designed to measure engine parameters as well as long term performance data.
Sulfuric acid hydrogen peroxide mixtures (SPM) are commonly used in the semiconductor industry to remove organic contaminants from wafer surfaces. This viscous solution is very difficult to rinse off wafer surfaces. Various rinsing conditions were tested and the resulting residual contamination on the wafer surface was measured. The addition of small amounts of a chemical base such as ammonium hydroxide to the rinse water has been found to be effective in reducing the surface concentration of sulfur and also mitigates the particle growth that occurs on SPM cleaned wafers. The volume of room temperature water required to rinse these wafers is also significantly reduced.
This report describes a project undertaken to develop an agile automated, high-precision edge finishing system, for fabricating precision parts. The project involved re-designing and adding additional capabilities to an existing finishing work-cell. The resulting work-cell may serve as prototype for production systems to be integrated in highly flexible automated production lines. The system removes burrs formed in the machining process and produces precision chamfers. The system uses an expert system to predict the burr size from the machining history. Within the CAD system, tool paths are generated for burr removal and chamfer formation. Then, the optimal grinding process is automatically selected from a database of processes. The tool trajectory and the selected process definition is then downloaded to a robotic control system to execute the operation. The robotic control system implements a hybrid fuzzy logic-classical control scheme to achieve the desired performance goals regardless of tolerance and fixturing errors. This report describes the system architecture and the system`s performance.
Fully CMOS-compatible, surface-micromachined polysilicon microbridges have been designed, fabricated, and tested for use in catalytic, calorimetric gas sensing. To improve sensor behavior, extensive electro-thermal modeling efforts were undertaken using SPICE. The validity of the SPICE model was verified comparing its simulated behavior with experiment. Temperature distribution of an electrically heated microbridges was measured using an infrared microscope. Comparisons among the measured distribution, the SPICE simulation, and distributions obtained by analytical methods show that heating at the ends of a microbridges has important implications for device response. Additional comparisons between measured and simulated current-voltage characteristics, as well as transient response, further support the accuracy of the model. A major benefit of electro- thermal modeling with SPICE is the ability to simultaneously simulate the behavior of a device and its control/sensing electronics. Results for the combination of a unique constant-resistance control circuit and microbridges gas sensor are given. Models of in situ techniques for monitoring catalyst deposition are shown to be in agreement with experiment. Finally, simulated chemical response of the detector is compared with the data, and methods of improving response through modifications in bridge geometry are predicted.
We report on the design, construction, and initial testing of surface micromachined devices for measuring friction and wear. The devices measure friction coefficients on both horizontal deposited polysilicon surfaces and vertical etched polysilicon surfaces. The contact geometry of the rubbing surfaces is well-defined, and a method is presented for the determination of the normal and frictional forces. Initial observations on test devices which have been dried with supercritical CO{sub 2} and devices coated with octadecyltrichlorosilane suggest that the coatings increase the lifetime of the devices and the repeatability of the results.
A summary of the input parameter values used in final predictions of closure and waste densification in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant disposal room is presented, along with supporting references. These predictions are referred to as the final porosity surface data and will be used for WIPP performance calculations supporting the Compliance Certification Application to be submitted to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The report includes tables and list all of the input parameter values, references citing their source, and in some cases references to more complete descriptions of considerations leading to the selection of values.
Microstructural morphology and grain boundary properties often control the service properties of engineered materials. This report uses the Potts-model to simulate the development of microstructures in realistic materials. Three areas of microstructural morphology simulations were studied. They include the development of massively parallel algorithms for Potts-model grain grow simulations, modeling of mass transport via diffusion in these simulated microstructures, and the development of a gradient-dependent Hamiltonian to simulate columnar grain growth. Potts grain growth models for massively parallel supercomputers were developed for the conventional Potts-model in both two and three dimensions. Simulations using these parallel codes showed self similar grain growth and no finite size effects for previously unapproachable large scale problems. In addition, new enhancements to the conventional Metropolis algorithm used in the Potts-model were developed to accelerate the calculations. These techniques enable both the sequential and parallel algorithms to run faster and use essentially an infinite number of grain orientation values to avoid non-physical grain coalescence events. Mass transport phenomena in polycrystalline materials were studied in two dimensions using numerical diffusion techniques on microstructures generated using the Potts-model. The results of the mass transport modeling showed excellent quantitative agreement with one dimensional diffusion problems, however the results also suggest that transient multi-dimension diffusion effects cannot be parameterized as the product of the grain boundary diffusion coefficient and the grain boundary width. Instead, both properties are required. Gradient-dependent grain growth mechanisms were included in the Potts-model by adding an extra term to the Hamiltonian. Under normal grain growth, the primary driving term is the curvature of the grain boundary, which is included in the standard Potts-model Hamiltonian.
This report describes electric utility capacity expansion and energy production models developed for energy policy analysis. The models use the same principles (life cycle cost minimization, least operating cost dispatching, and incorporation of outages and reserve margin) as comprehensive utility capacity planning tools, but are faster and simpler. The models were not designed for detailed utility capacity planning, but they can be used to accurately project trends on a regional level. Because they use the same principles as comprehensive utility capacity expansion planning tools, the models are more realistic than utility modules used in present policy analysis tools. They can be used to help forecast the effects energy policy options will have on future utility power generation capacity expansion trends and to help formulate a sound national energy strategy. The models make renewable energy source competition realistic by giving proper value to intermittent renewable and energy storage technologies, and by competing renewables against each other as well as against conventional technologies.
Sandia National Laboratories applied a systems approach to identifying innovative biomedical technologies with the potential to reduce U.S. health care delivery costs while maintaining care quality. This study was conducted by implementing both top-down and bottom-up strategies. The top-down approach used prosperity gaming methodology to identify future health care delivery needs. This effort provided roadmaps for the development and integration of technology to meet perceived care delivery requirements. The bottom-up approach identified and ranked interventional therapies employed in existing care delivery systems for a host of health-related conditions. Economic analysis formed the basis for development of care pathway interaction models for two of the most pervasive, chronic disease/disability conditions: coronary artery disease (CAD) and benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). Societal cost-benefit relationships based on these analyses were used to evaluate the effect of emerging technology in these treatment areas. 17 figs., 48 tabs.
The Thermal Enhanced Vapor Extraction System (TEVES), which combines powerline frequency heating (PLF) and radio frequency (RF) heating with vacuum soil vapor extraction, was used to effectively remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from a pit in the chemical waste landfill (CWL) at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) within a two month heating period. Volume average temperatures of 83{degrees}C and 112{degrees}C were reached for the PLF and RF heating periods, respectively, within the 15 ft x 45 ft x 18.5 ft deep treated volume. This resulted in the removal of 243 lb of measured toxic organic compounds (VOCs and SVOCs), 55 gallons of oil, and 11,000 gallons of water from the site. Reductions of up to 99% in total chromatographic organics (TCO) was achieved in the heated zone. Energy balance calculations for the PLF heating period showed that 36.4% of the heat added went to heating the soil, 38.5% went to evaporating water and organics, 4.2% went to sensible heat in the water, 7.1% went to heating the extracted air, and 6.6% was lost. For the RF heating period went to heating the soil, 23.5% went to evaporating water and organics, 2.4% went to sensible heat in the water, 7.5% went to heating extracted air, and 9.7% went to losses. Energy balance closure was 92.8% for the PLF heating and 98% for the RF heating. The energy input requirement per unit soil volume heated per unit temperature increase was 1.63 kWH/yd{sup 3}-{degrees}C for PLF heating and 0.73 kWH/yd{sup 3}{degrees}C for RF heating.
The Culebra Dolomite Member of the Rustler Formation represents a possible pathway for contaminants from the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant underground repository to the accessible environment. The geologic character of the Culebra is consistent with a double-porosity, multiple-rate model for transport in which the medium is conceptualized as consisting of advective porosity, where solutes are carried by the groundwater flow, and fracture-bounded zones of diffusive porosity, where solutes move through slow advection or diffusion. As the advective travel length or travel time increases, the nature of transport within a double-porosity medium changes. This behavior is important for chemical sorption, because the specific surface area per unit mass of the diffusive porosity is much greater than in the advective porosity. Culebra transport experiments conducted at two different length scales show behavior consistent with a multiple-rate, double-porosity conceptual model for Culebra transport. Tracer tests conducted on intact core samples from the Culebra show no evidence of significant diffusion, suggesting that at the core scale the Culebra can be modeled as a single-porosity medium where only the advective porosity participates in transport. Field tracer tests conducted in the Culebra show strong double-porosity behavior that is best explained using a multiple-rate model.
The environmental measurement-while-drilling-gamma ray spectrometer (EMWD-GRS) system represents an innovative blend of new and existing technology that provides real-time environmental and drill bit data during drilling operations. The EMWD-GRS technology was demonstrated at Savannah River Site F-Area Retention Basin. The EMWD-GRS technology demonstration consisted of continuously monitoring for gamma-radiation-producing contamination while drilling two horizontal boreholes below the backfilled retention basin. These boreholes passed near previously sampled vertical borehole locations where concentrations of contaminant levels of cesium had been measured. Contaminant levels continuously recorded by the EMWD-GRs system during drilling are compared to contaminant levels previously determined through quantitative laboratory analysis of soil samples.
Porous materials technology has developed products with a wide variety of pore sizes ranging from 1 angstrom to 100`s of microns and beyond. Beyond 15{angstrom} it becomes difficult to obtain well ordered, monodisperse pores. In this report the authors describe efforts in making novel porous material having monodisperse, controllable pore sizes spanning the mesoporous range (20--500 {angstrom}). They set forth to achieve this by using unique properties associated with block copolymers--two linear homopolymers attached at their ends. Block copolymers phase separate into monodisperse mesophases. They desired to selectively remove one of the phases and leave the other behind, giving the uniform monodisperse pores. To try to achieve this the authors used ring-opening metathesis polymerization to make the block copolymers. They synthesized a wide variety of monomers and surveyed their polymers by TGA, with the idea that one phase could be made thermally labile while the other phase would be thermally stable. In the precipitated and sol-gel processed materials, they determined by porosimetry measurements that micropores, mesopores, and macropores were created. In the film processed sample there was not much porosity present. They moved to a new system that required much lower thermal treatments to thermally remove over 90% of the labile phase. Film casting followed by thermal treatment and solvent extraction produced the desired monodisperse materials (based solely on SEM results). Modeling using Density Functional Theory was also incorporated into this project. The modeling was able to predict accurately the domain size and spacing vs. molecular weight for a model system, as well as accurate interfacial thicknesses.
The origin of recrystallization nuclei is reviewed with particular emphasis on materials in which well-developed cells are present in the deformed state. Nucleation is discussed in terms of coarsening of the subgrain network that develops on annealing and an analogy is made with abnormal grain growth. The results of a theoretical analysis of abnormal growth are summarized. The Monte Carlo model for grain growth is adapted for variable grain boundary energy and mobility in order to investigate the behavior of individual grains with special properties. The simulation results show that both energy and mobility affect abnormal growth as expected from the theoretical analysis. The results are discussed in terms of the stability that subgrain networks may exhibit depending on their mean misorientation.
Large scale coherent structures are intrinsic fluid mechanical characteristics of all free-shear flows, from incompressible to compressible, and laminar to fully turbulent. These quasi-periodic fluid structures, eddies of size comparable to the thickness of the shear layer, dominate the mixing process at the free-shear interface. As a result, large scale coherent structures greatly influence the operation and efficiency of many important commercial and defense technologies. Large scale coherent structures have been studied here in a research program that combines a synergistic blend of experiment, direct numerical simulation, and analysis. This report summarizes the work completed for this Sandia Laboratory-Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project.
The authors present the final report on a Laboratory-Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project, A Multi-level Code for Metallurgical Effects in metal-Forming Processes, performed during the fiscal years 1995 and 1996. The project focused on the development of new modeling capabilities for simulating forging and extrusion processes that typically display phenomenology occurring on two different length scales. In support of model fitting and code validation, ring compression and extrusion experiments were performed on 304L stainless steel, a material of interest in DOE nuclear weapons applications.
This article discusses a new intracavity laser technique that uses living or fixed cells as an integral part of the laser. The cells are placed on a GaAs based semiconductor wafer comprising one half of a vertical cavity surface-emitting laser. After placement, the cells are covered with a dielectric mirror to close the laser cavity. When photo-pumped with an external laser, this hybrid laser emits coherent light images and spectra that depend sensitively on the cell size, shape, and dielectric properties. The light spectra can be used to identify different cell types and distinguish normal and abnormal cells. The laser can be used to study single cells in real time as a cell-biology lab-on-a-chip, or to study large populations of cells by scanning the pump laser at high speed. The laser is well-suited to be integrated with other micro-optical or micro-fluidic components to lead to micro-optical-mechanical systems for analysis of fluids, particulates, and biological cells.
The goal of this project was to develop a framework for robotic planning and execution that provides a continuum of adaptability with respect to model incompleteness, model error, and sensing error. For example, dividing robot motion into gross-motion planning, fine-motion planning, and sensor-augmented control had yielded productive research and solutions to individual problems. Unfortunately, these techniques could only be combined by hand with ad hoc methods and were restricted to systems where all kinematics are completely modeled in planning. The original intent was to develop methods for understanding and autonomously synthesizing plans that coordinate motion, sensing, and control. The project considered this problem from several perspectives. Results included (1) theoretical methods to combine and extend gross-motion and fine-motion planning; (2) preliminary work in flexible-object manipulation and an implementable algorithm for planning shortest paths through obstacles for the free-end of an anchored cable; (3) development and implementation of a fast swept-body distance algorithm; and (4) integration of Sandia`s C-Space Toolkit geometry engine and SANDROS motion planer and improvements, which yielded a system practical for everyday motion planning, with path-segment planning at interactive speeds. Results (3) and (4) have either led to follow-on work or are being used in current projects, and they believe that (2) will eventually be also.
