Publications

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Vulcan is a new pulsed power system at Sandia National Laboratories based on fast Marx technology. Vulcan will serve as an intermediate scale demonstration of a fast Marx system and as a testbed for vacuum insulator testing. Vulcan uses multiple parallel fast Marxes, in a layout we call a Fast Marx Array (FMA), and a pulse forming line (PFL) to generate pulses up to 5 MV with effective pulse lengths for vacuum insulator testing that are relevant to larger facilities like Z. Vulcan consists of two parallel 25 stage Marxes with a total stored energy of up to 20 kJ. Vulcan applies up to 5 MV to a vacuum insulator stack load, thereby enabling testing of large area insulator stacks with areas on the order of 1000 cm2. The PFL design includes an oil output switch to adjust the voltage stress duration applied to the vacuum insulator. We will discuss Vulcan's design, including the FMA, Marx trigger generator, energy diverter, PFL, oil output switch, and results of initial commissioning experiments.

Pulsed-power generators can produce well-controlled continuous ramp compression of condensed matter for high-pressure equation-of-state studies using the magnetic loading technique. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data from dynamically compressed samples provide direct measurements of the elastic compression of the crystal lattice, onset of plastic flow, strength–strain rate dependence, structural phase transitions, and density of crystal defects, such as dislocations. Here, we present a cost-effective, compact, pulsed x-ray source for XRD measurements on pulsed-power-driven ramp-loaded samples. This combination of magnetically driven ramp compression of materials with a single, short-pulse XRD diagnostic will be a powerful capability for the dynamic materials’ community to investigate in situ dynamic phase transitions critical to equation of states. Finally, we present results using this new diagnostic to evaluate lattice compression in Zr and Al and to capture signatures of phase transitions in CdS.

Abstract: Here, we report the high pressure phase and morphology behavior of ordered anatase titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanocrystal arrays. One-dimensional TiO2 nanorods and nanorices were synthesized and self-assembled into ordered mesostructures. Their phase and morphological transitions at both atomic scale and mesoscale under pressure were studied using in situ synchrotron wide- and small-angle x-ray scattering (WAXS and SAXS) techniques. At the atomic scale, synchrotron WAXS reveals a pressure-induced irreversible amorphization up to 35 GPa in both samples but with different onset pressures. On the mesoscale, no clear phase transformations were observed up to 20 GPa by synchrotron SAXS. Intriguingly, sintering of TiO2 nanorods at mesoscale into nano-squares or nano-rectangles, as well as nanorices into nanowires, were observed for the first time by transmission electron microscopy. Such pressure-induced nanoparticle phase-amorphization and morphological changes provide valuable insights for design and engineering structurally stable nanomaterials. Impact statement: The high pressure behavior of nanocrystals (NCs) continues to be of interest, as previous studies have demonstrated that an externally applied pressure can serve as an efficient tool to induce structural phase transitions of NC assemblies at both the atomic scale and mesoscale without altering any chemistry by manipulating NC interatomic and interparticle distances. In addition, the high pressure generated deviatoric stress has been proven to be able to force adjacent NCs to connect and fuse into new crystalline nanostructures. Although the atomic structural evolution of TiO2 NCs under pressure has been widely investigated in the past decades, open questions remain regarding the mesoscale phase transition and morphology of TiO2 NC assemblies as a function of pressure. Therefore, in this work, systemic high pressure experiments on ordered arrays of TiO2 nanorods and nanorices were conducted by employing wide/small angle x-ray scattering techniques. The sintering of TiO2 assemblies at mesoscale into various nanostructures under pressure were revealed by transmission electron microscopy. Overall, this high pressure work fills the current gap in research on the mesoscale phase behavior of TiO2 assemblies. The observed morphology tunability attained by applying pressure opens new pathways for engineering nanomaterials and optimizing their collective properties through mechanical compression stresses. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.].

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We looked to build a new type of 100 kV pulse generator that we hope will avoid many of the problems seen with other commercially available pulse generators. We looked to exploit recent improvements in both lasers and solid-state pulse charge units along with an alternative triggering layout to build something new. For the pulse charging unit, we collaborated with Texas Tech to leverage their knowledge and expertise in pulse transformers and solid-state switching. The final result of the LDRD looks promising. Texas Tech was able to build a pulse charge unit that meets our specifications regarding output, and we were able to integrate it with a switch and a laser to create a device that meets the goals of the LDRD. There is still much work to do to advance the design further and improve reliability, but the proto-type design satisfies the goals we set for this LDRD.

Pulsed-power generators using the magnetic loading technique are able to produce well-controlled continuous ramp compression of condensed matter for high-pressure equation-of-state studies. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data from dynamically compressed samples provide direct measurements of the elastic compression of the crystal lattice, onset of plastic flow, strength-strain rate dependence, structural phase transitions, and density of crystal defects such as dislocations. Here, we present a cost effective, compact X-ray source for XRD measurements on pulsed-power-driven ramp-loaded samples. This combination of magnetically-driven ramp compression of materials with single, short-pulse XRD diagnostic will be a powerful capability for the dynamic materials community. The success in fielding this new XRD diagnostic dramatically improves our predictive capability and understanding of rate-dependent behavior at or near phase transition. As Sandia plans the next-generation pulse-power driver platform, a key element needed to deliver new state-of-the-art experiments will be having the necessary diagnostic tools to probe new regimes and phenomena. These diagnostics need to be as versatile, compact, and portable as they are powerful. The development of a platform-independent XRD diagnostic gives Sandia researchers a new window to study the microstructure and phase dynamics of materials under load. This project has paved the way for phase transition research in a variety of materials with mission interest.

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We present the development of a pulsed power experimental technique to infer the electrical conductivity of metals from ambient to high energy density conditions. The method is implemented on Thor, a moderate scale (1-2 MA) pulsed power driver. The electrical conductivity of copper at elevated temperature (>4000 K) and pressure (>10 GPa) is determined, and a new tabular material model is developed, guided by density functional theory, which preserves agreement with existing experimental data. Minor modifications (<10%) are found to be necessary to the previous Lee-More-Desjarlais model isotherms in the vicinity of the melt transition in order to account for observed discrepancies with the new experimental data. An analytical model for magnetic direct drive flyer acceleration and Joule heating induced vaporization based on the Tsiolkovsky "rocket equation"is presented to assess sensitivity of the method to minor changes in electrical conductivity.

Here, we describe recent efforts to improve our predictive modeling of rate-dependent behavior at, or near, a phase transition using molecular dynamics simulations. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is a well-studied material that undergoes a solid-solid phase transition from wurtzite to rock salt structures between 3 and 9 GPa. Atomistic simulations are used to investigate the dominant transition mechanisms as a function of orientation, size and rate. We found that the final rock salt orientations were determined relative to the initial wurtzite orientation, and that these orientations were different for the two orientations and two pressure regimes studied. The CdS solid-solid phase transition is studied, for both a bulk single crystal and for polymer-encapsulated spherical nanoparticles of various sizes.

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Herein we present details of the design, simulation, and performance of a 100-GW linear transformer driver (LTD) cavity at Sandia National Laboratories. The cavity consists of 20 "bricks." Each brick is comprised of two 80 nF, 100 kV capacitors connected electrically in series with a custom, 200 kV, three-electrode, field-distortion gas switch. The brick capacitors are bipolar charged to ±100 kV for a total switch voltage of 200 kV. Typical brick circuit parameters are 40 nF capacitance (two 80 nF capacitors in series) and 160 nH inductance. The switch electrodes are fabricated from a WCu alloy and are operated with breathable air. Over the course of 6,556 shots the cavity generated a peak electrical current and power of 1.03 MA (±1.8%) and 106 GW (±3.1%). Experimental results are consistent (to within uncertainties) with circuit simulations for normal operation, and expected failure modes including prefire and late-fire events. New features of this development that are reported here in detail include: (1) 100 ns, 1 MA, 100-GW output from a 2.2 m diameter LTD into a 0.1 Ω load, (2) high-impedance solid charging resistors that are optimized for this application, and (3) evaluation of maintenance-free trigger circuits using capacitive coupling and inductive isolation.

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We have developed two advanced designs of a field-distortion air-insulated spark-gap switch that reduce the size of a linear-transformer-driver (LTD) brick. Both designs operate at 200 kV and a peak current of ~50 kA. At these parameters, both achieve a jitter of less than 2 ns and a prefire rate of ~0.1% over 5000 shots. We have reduced the number of switch parts and assembly steps, which has resulted in a more uniform, design-driven assembly process. We will characterize the performance of tungsten-copper and graphite electrodes, and two different electrode geometries. The new switch designs will substantially improve the electrical and operational performance of next-generation pulsed-power accelerators.

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