Publications

As the capabilities of numerical simulations increase, decision makers are increasingly relying upon simulations rather than experiments to assess risks across a wide variety of accident scenarios including fires. There are still, however, many aspects of fires that are either not well understood or are difficult to treat from first principles due to the computational expense. For a simulation to be truly predictive and to provide decision makers with information which can be reliably used for risk assessment the remaining physical processes must be studied and suitable models developed for the effects of the physics. The model for the fuel evaporation rate in a liquid fuel pool fire is significant because in well-ventilated fires the evaporation rate largely controls the total heat release rate from the fire. A set of experiments are outlined in this report which will provide data for the development and validation of models for the fuel regression rates in liquid hydrocarbon fuel fires. The experiments will be performed on fires in the fully turbulent scale range (> 1 m diameter) and with a number of hydrocarbon fuels ranging from lightly sooting to heavily sooting. The importance of spectral absorption in the liquid fuels and the vapor dome above the pool will be investigated and the total heat flux to the pool surface will be measured. The importance of convection within the liquid fuel will be assessed by restricting large scale liquid motion in some tests. These data sets will provide a sound, experimentally proven basis for assessing how much of the liquid fuel needs to be modeled to enable a predictive simulation of a fuel fire given the couplings between evaporation of fuel from the pool and the heat release from the fire which drives the evaporation.

It is necessary to improve understanding and develop validation data of the heat flux incident to an object located within the fire plume for the validation of SIERRA/ FUEGO/SYRINX fire and SIERRA/CALORE. One key aspect of the validation data sets is the determination of the relative contribution of the radiative and convective heat fluxes. To meet this objective, a cylindrical calorimeter with sufficient instrumentation to measure total and radiative heat flux had been designed and fabricated. This calorimeter will be tested both in the controlled radiative environment of the Penlight facility and in a fire environment in the FLAME/Radiant Heat (FRH) facility. Validation experiments are specifically designed for direct comparison with the computational predictions. Making meaningful comparisons between the computational and experimental results requires careful characterization and control of the experimental features or parameters used as inputs into the computational model. Validation experiments must be designed to capture the essential physical phenomena, including all relevant initial and boundary conditions. A significant question of interest to modeling heat flux incident to an object in or near a fire is the contribution of the radiation and convection modes of heat transfer. The series of experiments documented in this test plan is designed to provide data on the radiation partitioning, defined as the fraction of the total heat flux that is due to radiation.

A series of experiments has been performed in the Sandia National Laboratories FLAME facility with a 2-meter diameter JP-8 fuel pool fire. Sandia heat flux gages were employed to measure the incident flux at 8 locations outside the flame. Experiments were repeated to generate sufficient data for accurate confidence interval analysis. Additional sources of error are quantified and presented together with the data. The goal of this paper is to present these results in a way that is useful for validation of computer models that are capable of predicting heat flux from large fires. We anticipate using these data for comparison to validate models within the Advanced Simulation and Computing (ASC, formerly ASCI) codes FUEGO and SYRINX that predict fire dynamics and radiative transport through participating media. We present preliminary comparisons between existing models and experimental results.

A study was performed on the Sandia Heat Flux Gauge (HFG) developed as a rugged, cost effective technique for performing steady state heat flux measurements in the pool fire environment. The technique involved reducing the time-temperature history of a thin metal plate to an incident heat flux via a dynamic thermal model, even though the gauge was intended for use at steady state. A validation experiment was presented where the gauge was exposed to a step input of radiant heat flux.

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Concerning the mitigation of high pressure core melt scenarios, the design objective for future PWRS is to transfer high pressure core melt to low pressure core melt sequences, by means of pressure relief valves at the primary circuit, with such a discharge capacity to limit the pressure in the reactor coolant system to less than 20 bar. Studies have shown that in late in-vessel reflooding scenarios there may be a time window where the pressure is indeed in this range, at the moment of the reactor vessel rupture. It has to be verified that large quantities of corium released from the vessel after failure at pressures <20 bar cannot be carried out of the reactor pit, because the melt collecting and cooling concept of future PWRs would be rendered useless. Existing experiments investigated the melt dispersal phenomena in the context of the DCH resolution for existing power plants in the USA, most of them having cavities with large instrument tunnels leading into subcompartments. For such designs, breaches with small cross sections at high vessel failure pressures had been studied. However, some present and future European PWRs have an annular cavity design without a large pathway out of the cavity other than through the narrow annular gap between the RPV and the cavity wall. Therefore, an experimental program was launched, focusing on the annular cavity design and low pressure vessel failure. The first part of the program comprises two experiments which were performed with thermite melt steam and a prototypic atmosphere in the containment in a scale 1:10. The initial pressure in the RPV-model was 11 and 15 bars, and the breach was a hole at the center of the lower head with a scaled diameter of 100 cm and 40 cm, respectively. The main results were: 78% of melt mass were ejected out of the cavity with the large hole and 21% with the small hole; the maximum pressures in the model containment were 6 bar and 4 bar, respectively. In the second part of the experimental program a detailed investigation of geometry effects is being carried out. The test facility DISCO-C has been built for performing dispersion experiments with cold simulant materials in a 1/18 scale. The fluids are water or bismuth alloy instead of melt, and nitrogen or helium instead of steam.

Performance tests of a scaled passive autocatalytic recombine (PAR) were performed in the Surtsey test vessel at Sandia National Laboratories. Measured hydrogen depletion rate data were obtained and compared with previous work. Depletion rate is most likely proportional to PAR scale. PAR performance in steamy environments (with and without hydrophobic coating) was investigated. The tests determined that the PAR startup delay times decrease with increasing hydrogen concentrations in steamy environments. Tests with placement of the PAR near a wall (as opposed to a center location) yielded reduced depletion rates. Tests at low oxygen concentrations also showed a reduced recombination rate. The PAR repeatedly ignited hydrogen at about 6 mol% concentration with a catalyst temperature near 940 K. Velocity data at the PAR exhaust were used to calculate the volumetric flow rate through the PAR as a function of the vessel hydrogen concentration.

Passive autocatalytic recombiners (PARs) are being considered by the nuclear power industry as a combustible gas control system in operating plants and advanced light water reactor (ALWR) containments for design basis events. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has developed systems and methodologies to measure the amount of hydrogen that can be depleted in a containment by a PAR. Experiments were performed that determined the hydrogen depletion rate of a PAR in the presence of steam and also evaluated the effect of scale (number of cartridges) on the PAR performance at both low and high hydrogen concentrations.

The Surtsey Test Facility is used to perform scaled experiments simulating High Pressure Melt Ejection accidents in a nuclear power plant (NPP). The experiments investigate the effects of direct containment heating (DCH) on the containment load. The results from Zion and Surry experiments can be extrapolated to other Westinghouse plants, but predicted containment loads cannot be generalized to all Combustion Engineering (CE) plants. Five CE plants have melt dispersal flow paths which circumvent the main mitigation of containment compartmentalization in most Westinghouse PWRs. Calvert Cliff-like plant geometries and the impact of codispersed water were addressed as part of the DCH issue resolution. Integral effects tests were performed with a scale model of the Calvert Cliffs NPP inside the Surtsey test vessel. The experiments investigated the effects of codispersal of water, steam, and molten core stimulant materials on DCH loads under prototypic accident conditions and plant configurations. The results indicated that large amounts of coejected water reduced the DCH load by a small amount. Large amounts of debris were dispersed from the cavity to the upper dome (via the annular gap). 22 refs., 84 figs., 30 tabs.

A series of experiments was conducted to determine hydrogen combustion behavior under conditions of rapidly condensing steam caused by water sprays. Experiments were conducted in the Surtsey facility under conditions that were nearly prototypical of those that would be expected in a severe accident in the CE System 80+ containment. Mixtures were initially nonflammable owing to dilution by steam. The mixtures were ignited by thermal glow plugs when they became flammable after sufficient steam was removed by condensation caused by water sprays. No detonations or accelerated flame propagation was observed in the Surtsey facility. The combustion mode observed for prototypical mixtures was characterized by multiple deflagrations with relatively small pressure rises. The thermal glow plugs were effective in burning hydrogen safely by igniting the gases as the mixtures became marginally flammable.