Publications

This paper presents a taxonomy, in the form of an abstract model, of the set of remote monitoring architectures, such as those used for international agreements, treaties, or the monitoring of hazardous materials. The model consists of three parts: a sensor, an optional server, and a user, with communication lines connecting sensor and server and connecting server and user. (If the server is not present, then the communication line connects the sensor and user directly). We refine the three parts to include different user populations, data sensitivity, and secure services. We complete the model by allowing data between the parts to be either pulled or pushed. This results in six basic partitions, each of which has a number of sub-partitions. For several sample architectures we show how they fit into the taxonomy. The importance of the taxonomy is that it provides a systematic method of understanding these architectures which we believe are on the forefront of technology. We anticipate that solutions generated by these architectures will become commonplace in the future. For example, a customary requirement for these architectures is that the adversary be a legitimate user.

The thermal stability of Li-ion cells with intercalating carbon anodes and metal oxide cathodes was measured as a function of state of charge and temperature for two advanced cell chemistries. Cells of the 18650 design with Li{sub x}CoO{sub 2} cathodes (commercial Sony cells) and Li{sub x}Ni{sub 0.8}Co{sub 0.2}O{sub 2} cathodes were measured for thermal reactivity. Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) was used to measure cell thermal runaway as a function of state of charge (SOC), microcalorimetry was used to measure the time dependence of thermal output, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to study the thermal reactivity of the individual components. Thermal decomposition of the anode solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer occurred at low temperatures and contributes to the initiation of thermal runaway. Low temperature reactions from 40 C--70 C were observed during the ARC runs that were SOC dependent. These reactions measured in the microcalorimeter decayed over time with power-law dependence and were highly sensitive to SOC and temperature. ARC runs of aged and cycled cells showed complete absence of these low-temperature reactions but showed abrupt exothermic spikes between 105--135 C. These results suggest that during aging the anode SEI layer is decomposing from a metastable state to a stable composition that is breaking down at elevated temperatures.

The Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) is the most powerful multi-module synchronized pulsed-power accelerator in the world. Rapid development of z-pinch loads on Z has led to outstanding progress in the last few years, resulting in radiative powers of up to 280 TW in 4 ns and a total radiated x-ray energy of 1.8 MJ. The present goal is to demonstrate single-shot, high-yield fusion capsules. Pulsed power is a robust and inexpensive technology, which should be well suited for Inertial Fusion Energy, but a rep-rated capability is needed. Recent developments have led to a viable conceptual approach for a rep-rated z-pinch power plant for IFE. This concept exploits the advantages of going to high yield (a few GJ) at low rep-rate ({approximately} 0.1 Hz), and using a Recyclable Transmission Line (RTL) to provide the necessary standoff between the fusion target and the power plant chamber. In this approach, a portion of the transmission line near the capsule is replaced after each shot. The RTL should be constructed of materials that can easily be separated from the liquid coolant stream and refabricated for a subsequent shots. One possibility is that most of the RTL is formed by casting FLiBe, a salt composed of fluorine, lithium, and beryllium, which is an attractive choice for the reactor coolant, with chemically compatible lead or tin on the surface to provide conductivity. The authors estimate that fusion yields greater than 1 GJ will be required for efficient generation of electricity. Calculations indicate that the first wall will have an acceptable lifetime with these high yields if blast mitigation techniques are used. Furthermore, yields above 5 GJ may allow the use of a compact blanket direct conversion scheme.

In principle, the energy released by a fission can be converted directly into electricity by using the charged fission fragments. The first theoretical treatment of direct energy conversion (DEC) appeared in the literature in 1957. Experiments were conducted over the next ten years, which identified a number of problem areas. Research declined by the late 1960's due to technical challenges that limited performance. Under the Nuclear Energy Research Initiative the authors are determining if these technical challenges can be overcome with todays technology. The authors present the basic principles of DEC reactors, review previous research, discuss problem areas in detail, and identify technological developments of the last 30 years that can overcome these obstacles. As an example, the fission electric cell must be insulated to avoid electrons crossing the cell. This insulation could be provided by a magnetic field as attempted in the early experiments. However, from work on magnetically insulated ion diodes they know how to significantly improve the field geometry. Finally, a prognosis for future development of DEC reactors will be presented .

The electrical properties of semi-insulating (SI) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) have been investigated for some time, particularly for its application as a substrate in microelectronics. Of late this material has found a variety of applications other than as an isolation region between devices, or the substrate of an active device. High resistivity SI GaAs is increasingly being used in charged particle detectors and photoconductive semiconductor switches (PCSS). PCSS made from these materials operating in both the linear and non-linear modes have applications such as firing sets, as drivers for lasers, and in high impedance, low current Q-switches or Pockels cells. In the non-linear mode, it has also been used in a system to generate Ultra-Wideband (UWB) High Power Microwaves (HPM). The choice of GaAs over silicon offers the advantage that its material properties allow for fast, repetitive switching action. Furthermore photoconductive switches have advantages over conventional switches such as improved jitter, better impedance matching, compact size, and in some cases, lower laser energy requirement for switching action. The rise time of the PCSS is an important parameter that affects the maximum energy transferred to the load and it depends, in addition to other parameters, on the bias or the average field across the switch. High field operation has been an important goal in PCSS research. Due to surface flashover or premature material breakdown at higher voltages, most PCSS, especially those used in high power operation, need to operate well below the inherent breakdown voltage of the material. The lifetime or the total number of switching operations before breakdown, is another important switch parameter that needs to be considered for operation at high bias conditions. A lifetime of {approximately} 10{sup 4} shots has been reported for PCSS's used in UWB-HPM generation [5], while it has exceeded 10{sup 8} shots for electro-optic drivers. Much effort is currently being channeled in the study related to improvements of these two parameters high bias operation and lifetime improvement for switches used in pulsed power applications. The contact material and profiles are another important area of study. Although these problems are being pursued through the incorporation of different contact materials and introducing doping near contacts, it is important that the switch properties and the conduction mechanism in these switches be well understood such that the basic nature of the problems can be properly addressed. In this paper the authors report on these two basic issues related to the device operation, i.e., mechanisms for increasing the hold-off characteristics through neutron irradiation, and the analysis of transport processes at varying field conditions in trap dominated SI GaAs in order to identify the breakdown mechanism during device operation. It is expected that this study would result in a better understanding of photoconductive switches, specifically those used in high power operation.

One of the most significant challenges for technology characterization and future analysis is to keep instrumentation and techniques in step with the development of technology itself. Not only are dimensions shrinking and new materials being employed, but the rate of change is increasing. According to the 1999 International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) the number and difficulty of the technical challenges continue to increase as technology moves forward. It could be argued that technology cannot be developed without appropriate analytical technique, nevertheless while much effort is being directed at materials and processes, only a small proportion is being directed at analysis. Whereas previous versions of the Semiconductor Industry Association roadmap contained a small number of implicit references to characterization and analysis, the 1999 ITRS contains many explicit references. It is clear that characterization is now woven through the roadmap, and technology developers in all areas appreciate the fact that new instrumentation and techniques will be required to sustain the rate of development the semiconductor industry has seen in recent years. Late in 1999, a subcommittee of the Sematech Product Analysis Forum reviewed the ITRS and identified a top-ten list of challenges which the failure analysis community will face as present technologies are extended and future technologies are developed. This paper discusses the PAF top-ten list of challenges, which is based primarily on the Difficult Challenges tables from each ITRS working group. Eight of the top-ten are challenges of significant technical magnitude, only two could be considered non-technical in nature. Most of these challenges cut across several working group areas and could be considered common threads in the roadmap, ranging from fault simulation and modeling to imaging small features, from electrical defect isolation to reprocessing.

Plasma facing components in TFTR contain an important record of plasma wall interactions in reactor grade DT plasmas. Tiles, flakes, wall coupons and dust samples have been retrieved from the TFTR vessel for analysis. Selected samples have been baked to release tritium and assay the tritium content. The in-vessel tritium inventory is estimated to be 0.5 g and is consistent with the in-vessel tritium inventory derived from the difference between tritium fueling and tritium exhaust. Relatively high concentrations of tritium were found at the top and bottom of the bumper limiter, as predicted by earlier BBQ modeling. The distribution of tritium on the limiter and vessel wall showed complex patterns of co-deposition.

Many parallel applications require periodic redistribution of workloads and associated data. In a distributed memory computer, this redistribution can be difficult if limited memory is available for receiving messages. The authors propose a model for optimizing the exchange of messages under such circumstances which they call the minimum phase remapping problem. They first show that the problem is NP-Complete, and then analyze several methodologies for addressing it. First, they show how the problem can be phrased as an instance of multi-commodity flow. Next, they study a continuous approximation to the problem. They show that this continuous approximation has a solution which requires at most two more phases than the optimal discrete solution, but the question of how to consistently obtain a good discrete solution from the continuous problem remains open. Finally, they devise a simple and practical approximation algorithm for the problem with a bound of 1.5 times the optimal number of phases.

The ability to withstand disruptions makes carbon-based materials attractive for use as plasma-facing components in divertors. However, such materials suffer high erosion rates during attached plasma operation which, in high power long pulse machines, would give short component lifetimes and high tritium inventories. The authors present results from recent experiments in DIII-D, in which the Divertor Materials Evaluation System (DiMES) was used to examine erosion and deposition during short exposures to well defined plasma conditions. These studies show that during operation with detached plasmas, produced by gas injection, net erosion is suppressed everywhere in the divertor. Net deposition of carbon with deuterium was observed at the inner and outer strikepoints and in the private-flux region between strikepoints. For these low temperature plasmas (T{sub e} < 2eV), physical sputtering is eliminated. These results show that with detached plasmas, the location of carbon net erosion and the carbon impurity source, probably lies outside the divertor. Physical or chemical sputtering by charge-exchange neutrals or ions in the main plasma chamber is a probable source of carbon under these plasma conditions.

The National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX) started plasma operations in February 1999, and promptly achieved high current, inner wall limited, double null, and single null plasma discharges, initial Coaxial Helicity Injection, and High Harmonic Fast Wave results. NSTX is designed to study the physics of Spherical Tori (ST) in a device that can produce non-inductively sustained high-{beta} discharges in the 1 MA regime and to explore approaches toward a small, economical high power density ST reactor core. As expected, discharge reproducibility and performance were strongly affected by wall conditions. In this paper, the authors describe the internal geometry, and initial plasma discharge, impurity control, wall conditioning, erosion, and deposition results.

Using an optimized thermal-spray process, coherent, dense deposits of pyrite (FeS{sub 2}) with good adhesion were formed on 304 stainless steel substrates (current collectors). After leaching with CS{sub 2} to remove residual free sulfur, these served as cathodes in Li(Si)/FeS{sub 2} thermal cells. The cells were tested over a temperature range of 450 C to 550 C under baseline loads of 125 and 250 mA/cm{sup 2}, to simulate conditions found in a thermal battery. Cells built with such cathodes outperformed standard cells made with pressed-powder parts. They showed lower interracial resistance and polarization throughout discharge, with higher capacities per mass of pyrite. Post-treatment of the cathodes with Li{sub 2}O coatings at levels of >7% by weight of the pyrite was found to eliminate the voltage transient normally observed for these materials. Results equivalent to those of standard lithiated catholytes were obtained in this manner. The use of plasma-sprayed cathodes allows the use of much thinner cells for thermal batteries since only enough material needs to be deposited as the capacity requirements of a given application demand.

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is a US Department of Energy (DOE) facility for the permanent disposal of defense-related transuranic (TRU) waste. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations specify that the DOE must demonstrate on a sound basis that the WIPP disposal system will effectively contain long-lived alpha-emitting radionuclides within its boundaries for 10,000 years following closure. In 1996, the DOE submitted the ''40 CFR Part 191 Compliance Certification Application for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant'' (CCA) to the EPA. The CCA proposed that the WIPP site complies with EPA's regulatory requirements. Contained within the CCA are descriptions of the scientific research conducted to characterize the properties of the WIPP site and the probabilistic performance assessment (PA) conducted to predict the containment properties of the WIPP disposal system. In May 1998, the EPA certified that the TRU waste disposal at the WIPP complies with its regulations. Waste disposal operations at WIPP commenced on March 28, 1999. The 1996 WIPP PA model of the disposal system included conceptual and mathematical representations of key hydrologic and geochemical processes. These key processes were identified over a 22-year period involving data collection, data interpretation, computer models, and sensitivity studies to evaluate the importance of uncertainty and of processes that were difficult to evaluate by other means. Key developments in the area of geochemistry were the evaluation of gas generation mechanisms in the repository; development of a model of chemical conditions in the repository and actinide concentrations in brine; selecting MgO backfill and demonstrating its effects experimentally; and determining the chemical retardation capability of the Culebra. Key developments in the area of hydrology were evacuating the potential for groundwater to dissolve the Salado Formation (the repository host formation), development of a regional model for hydrologic conditions, development of a stochastic, probabilistic representation of hydraulic properties in the Culebra Member of the Rustler Formation; characterization of physical transport in the Culebra, and the evaluation of brine and gas flow in the Salado. Additional confidence in the conceptual models used in the 1996 WIPP PA was gained through independent peer review in many stages of their development.

A multi-attribute utility analysis is applied to a decision process to select a treatment method for the management of aluminum-based spent nuclear fuel (Al-SNF) owned by the US Department of Energy (DOE). DOE will receive, treat, and temporarily store Al-SNF, most of which is composed of highly enriched uranium, at its Savannah River Site in South Carolina. DOE intends ultimately to send the treated Al-SNF to a geologic repository for permanent disposal. DOE initially considered ten treatment alternatives for the management of Al-SNF, and has narrowed the choice to two of these: the direct disposal and melt and dilute alternatives. The decision analysis presented in this document focuses on a formal decision process used to evaluate these two remaining alternatives.

Generative process planning describes methods process engineers use to modify manufacturing/process plans after designs are complete. A completed design may be the result from the introduction of a new product based on an old design, an assembly upgrade, or modified product designs used for a family of similar products. An engineer designs an assembly and then creates plans capturing manufacturing processes, including assembly sequences, component joining methods, part costs, labor costs, etc. When new products originate as a result of an upgrade, component geometry may change, and/or additional components and subassemblies may be added to or are omitted from the original design. As a result process engineers are forced to create new plans. This is further complicated by the fact that the process engineer is forced to manually generate these plans for each product upgrade. To generate new assembly plans for product upgrades, engineers must manually re-specify the manufacturing plan selection criteria and re-run the planners. To remedy this problem, special-purpose assembly planning algorithms have been developed to automatically recognize design modifications and automatically apply previously defined manufacturing plan selection criteria and constraints.

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), located in southeast New Mexico, is a deep geologic repository for the permanent disposal of transuranic waste generated by DOE defense-related activities. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), in its role as scientific advisor to the DOE, is responsible for evaluating the long-term performance of the WIPP. This risk-based Performance Assessment (PA) is accomplished in part through the use of numerous scientific modeling codes, which rely for some of their inputs on data gathered during characterization of the site. The PA is subject to formal requirements set forth in federal regulations. In particular, the components of the calculation fall under the configuration management and software quality assurance aegis of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Nuclear Quality Assurance (NQA) requirements. This paper describes SNL's implementation of the NQA requirements regarding configuration management. The complexity of the PA calculation is described, and the rationale for developing a flexible, robust run-control process is discussed. The run-control implementation is described, and its integration with the configuration-management system is then explained, to show how a calculation requiring 37,000 CPU-hours, and involving 225,000 output files totaling 95 Gigabytes, was accomplished in 5 months by 2 individuals, with full traceability and reproducibility.

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), located in southeast New Mexico, is a deep geologic repository for the permanent disposal of transuranic waste generated by DOE defense-related activities. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), in its role as scientific advisor to the DOE, is responsible for evaluating the long-term performance of the WIPP. This risk-based Performance Assessment (PA) is accomplished in part through the use of numerous scientific modeling codes, which rely for some of their inputs on data gathered during characterization of the site. The PA is subject to formal requirements set forth in federal regulations. In particular, the components of the calculation fall under the configuration management and software quality assurance aegis of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME) Nuclear Quality Assurance (NQA) requirements. This paper describes SNL's implementation of the NQA requirements regarding software quality assurance (SQA). The description of the implementation of SQA for a PA calculation addresses not only the interpretation of the NQA requirements, it also discusses roles, deliverables, and the resources necessary for effective implementation. Finally, examples are given which illustrate the effectiveness of SNL's SQA program, followed by a detailed discussion of lessons learned.

Low energy electron microscopy (LEEM) is used to investigate the dynamics of Pb overlayer growth on Cu(100). By following changes in surface morphology during Pb deposition, the amount of Cu transported to the surface as the Pb first alloys into the surface during formation of the c(4x4) phase and subsequently de-alloys during conversion to the c(2x2) phase is measured. The authors find that the added coverage of Cu during alloying is consistent with the proposed model for the c(4x4) alloy phase, but the added coverage during de-alloying is not consistent with the accepted model for the c(2x2) phase. To account for the discrepancy, the authors propose that Cu atoms are incorporated in the c(2x2) structure. Island growth and step advancement during the transition from the c(2x2) to c(5{radical}2x{radical}2)R45{degree} structure agrees with this model. The authors also use the LEEM to identify the order and temperature of the two-dimensional melting phase transitions for the three Pb/Cu(100) surface structures. Phase transitions for the c(5{radical}2x{radical}2)R45{degree} and c(4x4) structures are first-order, but the c(2x2) transition is second order. They determine that rotational domains of the c(5{radical}2x{radical}2)R45{degree} structure coarsen from nanometer- to micron-sized dimensions with relatively mild heating ({approximately}120 C), whereas coarsening of c(4x4) domains requires considerably higher temperatures ({approximately}400 C). In studies of three-dimensional island formation, they find that the islands grow asymmetrically with an orientational dependence that is directly correlated with the domain structure of the underlying c(5{radical}2x{radical}2)R45{degree} phase.

The optical gain spectra for GaInNAs/GaAs quantum wells are computed using a microscopic laser theory. From these spectra, the peak gain and carrier radiative decay rate as functions of carrier density are determined. These dependences allow the study of the lasing threshold current density of GaInNAs/GaAs quantum well structures.

The authors report high pressure liquid chromatography, (HPLC), and transmission electron microscopy, (TEM), studies of the size distributions of nanosize gold clusters dispersed in organic solvents. These metal clusters are synthesized in inverse micelles at room temperature and those investigated range in diameter from 1--10 nm. HPLC is sensitive enough to discern changes in hydrodynamic volume corresponding to only 2 carbon atoms of the passivating agent or metal core size changes of less than 4 {angstrom}. The authors have determined for the first time how the total cluster volume (metal core + passivating organic shell) changes with the size of the passivating agent.

The relatively poor efficiency of phosphor materials in cathodoluminescence with low accelerating voltages is a major concern in the design of field emission flat panel displays operated below 5 kV. The authors research on rare-earth-activated phosphors indicates that mechanisms involving interactions of excited activators have a significant impact on phosphor efficiency. Persistence measurements in photoluminescence (PL) and cathodoluminescence (CL) show significant deviations from the sequential relaxation model. This model assumes that higher excited manifolds in an activator de-excite primarily by phonon-mediated sequential relaxation to lower energy manifolds in the same activator ion. In addition to sequential relaxation, there appears to be strong coupling between activators, which results in energy transfer interactions. Some of these interactions negatively impact phosphor efficiency by nonradiatively de-exciting activators. Increasing activator concentration enhances these interactions. The net effect is a significant degradation in phosphor efficiency at useful activator concentrations, which is exaggerated when low-energy electron beams are used to excite the emission.

An integrated approach, including a continuum theory of sintering and mesostructure evolution analysis, is used for the solution of the problem of bi-layered structure sintering. Two types of bi-layered structures are considered: layers of the same material different by initial porosity, and layers of two different materials. The effective sintering stress and the normalized bulk modulus for the bi-layer powder sintering are derived based on mesoscale simulations. The combined effect of the layers' porosity and differences in sintering rate on shrinkage and warpage is studied for both sintering on a rigid substrate and free sintering.

Characteristics of annular wire-array z-pinches as a function of wire number and at high wire number are reviewed. The data, taken primarily using aluminum wires on Saturn are comprehensive. The experiments have provided important insights into the features of wire-array dynamics critical for high x-ray power generation, and have initiated a renaissance in z-pinches when high numbers of wires are used. In this regime, for example, radiation environments characteristic of those encountered during the early pulses required for indirect-drive ICF ignition on the NIF have been produced in hohlraums driven by x-rays from a z-pinch, and are commented on here.

The switching and memory retention time has been measured in 50 {micro}m gatelength pseudo-non-volatile memory MOSFETS containing, protonated 40 nm gate oxides. Times of the order of 3.3 seconds are observed for fields of 3 MV cm{sup {minus}1}. The retention time with protons placed either at the gate oxide/substrate or gate oxide/gate electrode interfaces is found to better than 96{percent} after 5,000 seconds. Measurement of the time dependence of the source-drain current during switching provides clear evidence for the presence of dispersive proton transport through the gate oxide.

Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis results obtained in the 1996 performance assessment (PA) for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) are presented for two-phase flow in the vicinity of the repository under disturbed conditions resulting from drilling intrusions. Techniques based on Latin hypercube sampling, examination of scatterplots, stepwise regression analysis, partial correlation analysis and rank transformations are used to investigate brine inflow, gas generation repository pressure, brine saturation and brine and gas outflow. Of the variables under study, repository pressure and brine flow from the repository to the Culebra Dolomite are potentially the most important in PA for the WIPP. Subsequent to a drilling intrusion repository pressure was dominated by borehole permeability and generally below the level (i.e., 8 MPa) that could potentially produce spallings and direct brine releases. Brine flow from the repository to the Culebra Dolomite tended to be small or nonexistent with its occurrence and size also dominated by borehole permeability.

The following topics related to radionuclide transport in the vicinity of the repository in the 1996 performance assessment for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant are presented (1) mathematical description of models, (2) uncertainty and sensitivity analysis results arising from subjective (i.e., epistemic) uncertainty for individual releases, (3) construction of complementary cumulative distribution functions (CCDFs) arising from stochastic (i.e., aleatory) uncertainty, and (4) uncertainty and sensitivity analysis results for CCDFs. The presented results indicate that no releases to the accessible environment take place due to radionuclide movement through the anhydrite marker beds, through the Dewey Lake Red Beds or directly to the surface, and also that the releases to the Culebra Dolomite are small. Even when the effects of uncertain analysis inputs are taken into account, the CCDFs for release to the Culebra Dolomite fall to the left of the boundary line specified in the US Environmental Protection Agency's standard for the geologic disposal of radioactive waste (40 CFR 191, 40 CFR 194).