Publications

Disruptive technologies are scientific discoveries that break through the usual product technology capabilities and provide a basis for a new competitive paradigm as described by Anderson and Tushman [1990], Tushman and Rosenkopf [1992], and Bower and Christensen [1995]. Discontinuous innovations are products/processes/services that provide exponential improvements in the value received by the customer much in the same vein as Walsh [1996], Lynn, Morone and Paulson [1996], and Veryzer [1998]. For more on definitions of disruptive technologies and discontinuous innovations, see Walsh and Linton [1999] who provide a number of definitions for disruptive technologies and discontinuous innovations. Disruptive technologies and discontinuous innovations present a unique challenge and opportunity for R and D organizations seeking to build their commercialization efforts and to reinvent the corporation. These technologies do not have a proven path from scientific discovery to mass production and therefore require novel approaches. These critically important technologies are the wellspring of wealth creation and new competency generation but are not readily accepted by the corporate community. They are alternatively embraced and eschewed by the commercial community. They are finally accepted when the technology has already affected the industry or when the technological horse has already flown out of the hanger. Many firms, especially larger firms, seem reluctant to familiarize themselves with these technologies quickly. The trend seems to be that these firms prefer to react to a proven disruptive technology that has changed the product market paradigm. If true, then there is cause for concern. This paper will review the literature on disruptive technologies presenting a model of the progression from scientific idea to mass production for disruptive technologies contrasted to the more copious incremental technologies. The paper will then describe Sandia National Laboratories' involvement in one of the disruptive technology areas, namely micro-electromechanical systems (sometimes referred to as Microsystems or MEMS) and will survey a number of companies that have investigated Sandia's technological discoveries for potential use in an industrial capacity. The survey will focus on the movement of the research findings from the laboratory into the marketplace and all of the problem areas that disruptive technologies face in this arena. The paper will then state several hypotheses that will be tested. The data will be described with results and conclusions reported.

Many important products and technologies were developed in federal laboratories and were driven initially by national needs and for federal applications. For example, the clean room technology that enhanced the growth of the semiconductor industry was developed at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) decades ago. Similarly, advances in micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS)--an important set of process technologies vital for product miniaturization--are occurring at SNL. Each of the more than 500 federal laboratories in the US, are sources of R and D that contributes to America's economic vitality, productivity growth and, technological innovation. However, only a fraction of the science and technology available at the federal laboratories is being utilized by industry. Also, federal laboratories have not been applying all the business development processes necessary to work effectively with industry in technology commercialization. This paper addresses important factors that federal laboratories, federal agencies, and industry must address to translate these under utilized technologies into profitable products in the industrial sector.

Nanotechnology is based on the ability to create and utilize materials, devices and systems through control of the matter at the nanometer scale. If successful, nanotechnology is expected to lead to broad new technological developments. The efficiency of energy conversion can be increased through the use of nanostructured materials with enhanced magnetic, light emission or wear resistant properties. Energy generation using nanostructured photovoltaics or nanocluster driven photocatalysis could fundamentally change the economic viability of renewable energy sources. In addition, the ability to imitate molecular processes found in living organisms may be key to developing highly sensitive and discriminating chemical and biological sensors. Such sensors could greatly expand the range of medical home testing as well as provide new technologies to counter the spread of chemical and biological weapons. Even the production of chemicals and materials could be revolutionized through the development of molecular reactors that can promote low energy chemical pathways for materials synthesis. Although nanotechnologies hold great promise, significant scientific challenges must be addressed before they can convert that promise into a reality. A key challenge in nanoscience is to understand how nano-scale tailoring of materials can lead to novel and enhanced functions. The authors' laboratory, for example, is currently making broad contributions in this area by synthesizing and exploring nanomaterials ranging from layered structures for electronics/photonics to novel nanocrystalline catalysts. They are even adapting functions from biological molecules to synthesize new forms of nanostructured materials.

Commercialization and transfer of technology from laboratories in academia, government, and industry has only met a fraction of its potential and is currently an art not a science. The line of sight approach developed and in use at Sandia National Laboratories, is used to better understand commercialization and transfer of technology. The line of sight process integrates technology description, the dual process model of innovation and the product introduction model. The model, that the line of sight is based OR is presented and the application of the model to both disruptive and sustaining technologies is illustrated. Work to date suggests that the differences between disruptive and sustaining technologies are critical to quantifying the level of risk and choosing the commercialization path. The applicability of the line of sight to both disruptive and sustaining technologies is key to the success of the model and approach.

Continuing education is a critical issue in the workplace. Rapid change, the emergence of new technology, and the lack of trained individuals make continuing education an imperative for employers. The desire for individual growth and marketability make it an imperative for the employee also. While there are many options for continuing education, an increasingly popular vehicle is the short course. Time, cost efficiency and instruction by those experienced in real industrial practice are key factors in the success of this educational format. Over the past couple of decades, short course offerings and the number and type of sponsoring organizations have grown significantly. Within the scientific community, courses in basic disciplines (e.g., materials characterization), emergent technologies (e.g., Micro-Electro- Mechanical Systems), equipment operation (e.g., electron microscopes) and even business practices (e.g., ES&H, proposal writing) have emerged and are taught by universities, technical societies and equipment manufacturers. Short course offerings and formats are evolving. Presently, it is possible to find series of courses which define specific curricula. These curricula set the stage for new developments in the future, including increased certification and licensing (e.g., technologists). Along with such certifications will come the need for accreditation. Who will offer such programs, and especially, who will accredit them are significant questions. Perhaps the most dramatic changes will occur with the integration of advanced information technology. While satellite-based remote offerings are available, the use of the web for educating a dispersed group is just beginning to emerge. In its simplest forms, this offers little advantage over a video or a real-time satellite course, but the eventual emergence of tele-operation of experimental equipment will revolutionize remote teaching.

The committee regards Sandia's Microelectronics and Photonics Program as a vital and strategic resource for the nation. The Microsystems (MEMS) and Chem Lab programs were assessed as unique and best-in-class for the development of significant application areas. They contribute directly to the Sandia mission and impact the development of new commercial areas. The continued development and integration of Radiation hard silicon integrated circuits, micromechanical systems, sensors, and optical communications is essential to the national security mission. The quality of the programs is excellent to outstanding overall. MEMS and Chem Lab activities are examples of outstanding programs. The committee was pleased to see the relationship of the microelectronics development programs to applications in the mission. In a future review the committee would like to see Sandia's research programs and a vision for connectivity to potential national security needs. (This review may be based on analysis and assumptions about the strategic needs of the nation.) In summary, the Microelectronics and Photonics capability affords Sandia the opportunity to deliver exceptional service in the national interest across broad technology areas. The presentations were excellent and well integrated. We received ample pre-reading materials, expectations were well set and the documents were high quality. The committee was provided an agenda with sufficient time among us and some selected one-on-one time with the researchers. The composition of the committee held representation from industry, universities and government. Committee contributions were well balanced and worked as a team. However, the committee was disappointed that no member of Sandia executive management was able to be present for the readout and final debriefing. (A late, higher priority conflict developed.) The members of the EST Program and the committee put substantial effort into the review but a written report like this one is not a substitute for direct feedback in helping SNL leadership assess the value of these programs.

The second silicon revolution will be based on intelligent, integrated microsystems where multiple technologies (such as analog, digital, memory, sensor, micro-electro-mechanical, and communication devices) are integrated onto a single chip or within a multichip module. A necessary element for such systems is cost-effective, high-performance packaging. This paper examines many of the issues associated with the packaging of integrated microsystems, with an emphasis on the areas of packaging design, manufacturability, and reliability. © 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Use of lead-indium solders in microelectronics packaging has increased over the last decade. Increased usage is due to improved properties, such as greater thermo-mechanical fatigue resistance, lower intermetallic formation rates with base metallizations, such as copper, and lower reflow temperatures. However, search of literature reveals no comprehensive studies on phase equilibrium relations between copper metal and lead-indium solder. Our effort involves a combination of experimental data acquisition and computer modeling to obtain the Cu-In-Pb ternary phase diagram. Isotherms and isopleths of interest at low temperatures are achieved by means of differential scanning calorimetry and electron probe microanalysis. Thermodynamic models of these sections served as a guide for efficient experimentation.

High spatial resoslution x-ray microanalysis in the analytical electron microscope (AEM) can be used to determine chemical composition on spatial scales of < 50 nm. Simple scattering models have the drawback of being incapable of treating electron scattering in inhomogeneous specimens, such as at phase interfaces or grain boundary segregation. The best method for calculating electron scattering and x-ray generation function is by Mone Carlo methods. Two examples are discussed: a phase interface in an Fe-Ni-Cr alloy, and grain boundary segregation using a 0.3 nm Cu slab in a 25 nm Al film (the slab is parallel to incident electron beam). It is concluded that high spatial resolution x-ray microanalysis can achieve near atomic resolution, but that massively parallel Monte Carlo models for electron scattering and a well characterized electron beam are needed.

High spatial resolution x-ray microanalysis in the analytical electron microscope (AEM) describes a technique by which chemical composition can be determined on spatial scales of less than 50 nm. Dependent upon the size of the incident probe, the energy (voltage) of the beam, the average atomic number of the material being analyzed, and the thickness of the specimens at the point of analysis it is possible to measure uniquely the composition of a region 2--20 nm in diameter. Conventional thermionic (tungsten or LaB{sub 6}) AEMs can attain direct spatial resolutions as small as 20 nm, while field emission (FEG) AEM`s can attain direct spatial resolutions approaching 2 nm. Recently, efforts have been underway to extract compositional information on a finer spatial scale by using massively parallel Monte Carlo electron trajectory simulations coupled with AEM measurements. By deconvolving the measured concentration profile with the calculated x-ray generation profile it is possible to extract compositional information at near atomic resolution.

The well known Boltzmann-Matano analysis'' can be used in general to measure the diffusivity of binary and ternary alloys. However for alloys containing four or more components, the analysis requires making assumptions, for example that the diffusivity is constant. Conversely, it can be shown that the square root diffusivity analysis'' applies to measuring diffusivities that vary with concentration, as long as the variation is linear with concentration. Methods of designing samples and evaluating data for the square root diffusivity analysis are discussed.

Historically, the electronics industry has always attempted to increase the speed of electronic components and decrease the size of electronic assemblies by developing and manufacturing smaller and faster basic level components (e.g., integrated circuits). However, it is now becoming apparent that the next significant advancement in electronic assembly size and speed may come not as a result of smaller and faster devices, but rather as a consequence of smaller and more closely spaced packages. This increased packaging density will occur at early levels of assembly as industry moves towards multichip modules. It will also occur at later packaging steps as industry continues to expand the use of surface mount technology (SMT) and mixed mounting technology (through hole attachment as well as SMT on one circuit board). Furthermore, there will be an increased propensity to use higher packaging density on printed wiring boards (PWB) and to place more PWB's in a given volume at yet the next level of packaging. One class of materials on which this advanced packaging technology will place severe new demands will be the alloys used to join assemblies and subassemblies (e.g. solders and brazes). These materials will be taxed both from the perspective of enhanced manufacturability as well as greater in-service robustness. It is the objective of this paper, through the use of selected case studies, to illustrate how advanced microstructural characterization techniques can be used to improve packaging technology. The specific case studies discussed are: (1) Microstructural Characterization of Solders, (2) Microstructural Characterization of Solder Joint Embrittlement of Leaded, Surface Mount Transistors (3) Microstructural Characterization of Metal/Ceramic Brazes in Electronic Applications, and (4) Microstructural Characterization of Direct Brazing of Graphite to Copper. 25 refs., 16 figs.

This paper describes a new technique for the detection of x-rays in electron column instruments used in microanalysis. In electron column instruments, the point source of x-rays is produced by the interaction of a focused electron beam with the sample. Neither of the conventional methods, wavelength dispersive (WDS) nor energy dispersive (EDS) based spectrometry, is optimized for low Z element quantitative analysis. In WDS applications, where the analyte elements are Be through P, chemical effects complicate the x-ray measurement process. Peak positions and shapes are altered, sometimes very strongly, by the electron configurations of the analyte atoms and neighboring atoms. In these cases, the ideal spectrometer would profile the peak and some small amount of continuum on either side of the peak such that an accurate peak area could be calculated. Present WDS spectrometers are serial in nature and cannot directly measure peak areas, often causing errors in the determination of light element concentrations. Bastin and co-workers have developed an elegant method to provide accurate area determinations, using the serial spectrometer, by a three point procedure. The parallel wavelength dispersive spectrometer (PWDS) we propose here is ideally suited for those applications.

Results for Cr/Fe/Ni films are reported, showing that the simulation of electron scattering in solids by Monte Carlo techniques is well suited to parallel computation. Significant gains in computation time are realized and make explicit calculation of convoluted composition profiles possible. Computation time is sufficiently shortened to enable such simulations to be used in a real-time experimental environment. Because such simulations break naturally into independent computational pieces that require little intercommunication, they are ideal candidates for fast parallel implementation on a MIMD machine such as the NCUBE 2. Similar performance gains should be possible for other kinds of Monte Carlo transport simulations.

X-ray microanalysis by analytical electron microscopy (AEM) has proven to be a powerful tool for characterizing the spatial distribution of solute elements in materials. True compositional variations over spatial scales smaller than the actual resolution for microanalysis can be determined if the measured composition profile is deconvoluted. Explicit deconvolutions of such data, via conventional techniques such as Fourier transforms, are not possible due to statistical noise in AEM microanalytical data. Hence, the method of choice is to accomplish the deconvolution via iterative convolutions. In this method, a function describing the assumed true composition profile, calculated by physically permissible thermodynamic and kinetic modeling is convoluted with the x-ray generation function and the result compared to the measured composition profile. If the measured and calculated profiles agree within experimental error, it is assumed that the true compositional profile has been determined. If the measured and calculated composition profiles are in disagreement, the assumptions in the physical model are adjusted and the convolution process repeated. To employ this procedure it is necessary to calculate the x-ray generation function explicitly. While a variety of procedures are available for calculating this function, the most accurate procedure is to use Monte Carlo modeling of electron scattering. 9 refs., 1 fig.

Advanced titanium-aluminum intermetallic alloys (often simply called titanium aluminides) have certain properties which make them potentially attractive as advanced aerospace alloys. In order to utilize these alloys in engineering applications, it is necessary to process the alloys in a variety of ways including casting, hot forming and welding. All of these processes modify the microstructure of the alloy, which in turn directly influences the properties. The key to optimizing the alloy's properties is to control the microstructure by careful control of the processing parameters. Control for the microstructure requires a thorough understanding of the evolution of the microstructure, including elemental partitioning between the various phases which form in the alloy. Analytical electron microscopy (AEM) is an ideal way to characterize the microstructures on a fine spatial scale. Such high spatial resolution microanalysis is required to understand the microstructural evolution in these alloys. In this case, the alloy is a Nb modified Ti/sub 3/Al, and the partitioning behavior of interest is between a variety of ternary phases which are produced as a function of alloy cooling rate from a single homogeneous high temperature ..beta.. phase. The Nb is added to the alloy to enhance its performance, primarily through an improvement in ductility. In this work, the details of the procedure for quantitative analysis of these alloys are presented.