Plasma etching and desmear processes for printed wiring board (PWB) manufacture are difficult to predict and control. Non-uniformity of most plasma processes and sensitivity to environmental changes make it difficult to maintain process stability from day to day. To assure plasma process performance, weight loss coupons or post-plasma destructive testing must be used. These techniques are not real-time methods however, and do not allow for immediate diagnosis and process correction. These tests often require scrapping some fraction of a batch to insure the integrity of the rest. Since these tests verify a successful cycle with post-plasma diagnostics, poor test results often determine that a batch is substandard and the resulting parts unusable. These tests are a costly part of the overall fabrication cost. A more efficient method of testing would allow for constant monitoring of plasma conditions and process control. Process anomalies should be detected and corrected before the parts being treated are damaged. Real time monitoring would allow for instantaneous corrections. Multiple site monitoring would allow for process mapping within one system or simultaneous monitoring of multiple systems. Optical emission spectroscopy conducted external to the plasma apparatus would allow for this sort of multifunctional analysis without perturbing the glow discharge. In this paper, optical emission spectroscopy for non-intrusive, in situ process control will be explored along with applications of this technique to for process control, failure analysis and endpoint determination in PWB manufacture.
Jupiter is a Sandia initiative to develop the next generation of fast Z-pinch drivers for applications to high energy density physics, inertial confinement fusion, and radiation effects simulation. Jupiter will also provide unique capabilities for science research in a broad spectrum of areas involving ultra high magnetic fields, hot/dense plasmas, x-ray physics, intense neutron sources, etc. The program is based on the premise that a single facility using magnetically driven implosions can meet the needs in these multiple program areas. Jupiter requires a 450-500 TW, 8-10 MV, {approx} 100 ns pulsed power generator to impart - 15 MJ kinetic energy to an imploding plasma load. The baseline concept uses a highly modular, robust architecture with demonstrated performance reliability. The design also has the flexibility to drive longer implosion times. This paper describes the Jupiter accelerator concept, and the research underway to establish the technological readiness to proceed with construction of the facility.
The thermal conductivities of a variety of insulating materials used in thermal batteries were measured in atmospheres of argon and helium using several techniques. (Helium was used to simulate the hydrogen atmosphere that results when a Li(Si)/FeS{sub 2} thermal battery ages.) The guarded-hot-plate method was used with the Min-K insulation because of its extremely low thermal conductivity. For comparison purposes, the thermal conductivity of the Min-K insulating board was also measured using the hot-probe method. The thermal-comparator method was used for the rigid Fiberfrax board and Fiberfrax paper. The thermal conductivity of the paper was measured under several levels of compression to simulate the conditions of the insulating wrap used on the stack in a thermal battery. The results of preliminary thermal-characterization tests with several silica aerogel materials are also presented.
Sandia National Laboratories has recently completed construction of a new Explosive Components Facility (ECF) that will be used for the research and development of advanced explosives technology. The ECF includes nine indoor firing pads for detonating explosives and monitoring the detonations. Department of Energy requirements for certification of this facility include detonation of explosive levels up to 125 percent of the rated firing pad capacity with no visual structural degradation resulting from the explosion. The Explosives Projects and Diagnostics Department at Sandia decided to expand this certification process to include vibration and acoustic monitoring at various locations throughout the building during these explosive events. This information could then be used to help determine the best locations for noise and vibration sensitive equipment (e.g. scanning electron microscopes) used for analysis throughout the building. This facility has many unique isolation features built into the explosive chamber and laboratory areas of the building that allow normal operation of other building activities during explosive tests. This paper discusses the design of this facility and the various types of explosive testing performed by the Explosives Projects and Diagnostics Department at Sandia. However, the primary focus of the paper is directed at the vibration and acoustic data acquired during the certification process. This includes the vibration test setup and data acquisition parameters, as well as analysis methods used for generating peak acceleration levels and spectral information. Concerns over instrumentation issues such as the choice of transducers (appropriate ranges, resonant frequencies, etc.) and measurements with long cable lengths (500 feet) are also discussed.
Mesoporous is defined as 20{le}d{le}500{angstrom}. Mesoporous materials with narrow pore size distributions may be useful as hosts, supports, catalysts, or separation media for small molecules. An ensemble of organic molecules to create a larger template has been used to synthesize ordered mesoporous materials. The silicon alkoxide precursors TEOS and TMOS were examined. Cosolvents were used to control pore size and the structure of the mesophase. Effects of anions (salts) on mesophase formation were examined. Properties of mesophases made from homogeneous solutions are discussed.
Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction is being explored as a waste minimization technique for separating oils, greases, and solvents from solid waste. The contaminants are dissolved into the supercritical fluid and precipitated out upon depressurization. The carbon dioxide solvent can then be recycled for continued use. Definitions of the temperature, pressure, flowrate, and potential co-solvents are required to establish the optimum conditions for hazardous contaminant removal. Excellent extractive capability for common manufacturing oils, greases, and solvents has been observed in both supercritical and liquid carbon dioxide.
This report provides calculational results from the updated Lagrangian structural finite-element programs SPECTROM-32 and SPECTROM-333 for the purpose of qualifying these codes to perform analyses of structural situations in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP). Results are presented for the Second WIPP Benchmark (Benchmark II) Problems and for a simplified heated room problem used in a parallel design calculation study. The Benchmark II problems consist of an isothermal room problem and a heated room problem. The stratigraphy involves 27 distinct geologic layers including ten clay seams of which four are modeled as frictionless sliding interfaces. The analyses of the Benchmark II problems consider a 10-year simulation period. The evaluation of nine structural codes used in the Benchmark II problems shows that inclusion of finite-strain effects is not as significant as observed for the simplified heated room problem, and a variety of finite-strain and small-strain formulations produced similar results. The simplified heated room problem provides stratigraphic complexity equivalent to the Benchmark II problems but neglects sliding along the clay seams. The simplified heated problem does, however, provide a calculational check case where the small strain-formulation produced room closures about 20 percent greater than those obtained using finite-strain formulations. A discussion is given of each of the solved problems, and the computational results are compared with available published results. In general, the results of the two SPECTROM large strain codes compare favorably with results from other codes used to solve the problems.
This paper argues that cooperative monitoring plays a critical role in the implementation of regional security agreements and confidence building measures. A framework for developing cooperative monitoring options is proposed and several possibilities for relating bilateral and regional monitoring systems to international monitoring systems are discussed. Three bilateral or regional agreements are analyzed briefly to illustrate different possibilities: (1) the demilitarization of the Sinai region between Israel and Egypt in the 1970s; (2) the 1991 quadripartite agreement for monitoring nuclear facilities among Brazil, Argentina, The Argentine-Brazilian Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials and the International Atomic Energy Agency; and (3) a bilateral Open Skies agreement between Hungary and Romania in 1991. These examples illustrate that the relationship of regional or bilateral arms control or security agreements to international agreements depends on a number of factors: the overlap of provisions between regional and international agreements; the degree of interest in a regional agreement among the international community; efficiency in implementing the agreement; and numerous political considerations.Given the importance of regional security to the international community, regions should be encouraged to develop their own infrastructure for implementing regional arms control and other security agreements. A regional infrastructure need not preclude participation in an international regime. On the contrary, establishing regional institutions for arms control and nonproliferation could result in more proactive participation of regional parties in developing solutions for regional and international problems, thereby strengthening existing and future international regimes. Possible first steps for strengthening regional infrastructures are identified and potential technical requirements are discussed.
The Department of Energy Order 5500.3A requires facility-specific hazards assessments be prepared, maintained, and used for emergency planning purposes. This hazards assessment document describes the chemical and radiological hazards associated with the Glass Formulation and Fabrication Laboratory, Building 864. The entire inventory was screened according to the potential airborne impact to onsite and offsite individuals. The air dispersion model, ALOHA, estimated pollutant concentrations downwind from the source of a release, taking into consideration the toxicological and physical characteristics of the release site, the atmospheric conditions, and the circumstances of the release. The greatest distances at which a postulated facility event will produce consequences exceeding the ERPG-2 threshold is 96 meters. The highest emergency classification is a Site Area Emergency. The Emergency Planning Zone is 100 meters.
We describe a new concept for producing, on a single substrate, a two-dimensional array of optical interference filters where the pass-band of each element can be independently specified. The interference filter is formed by optically contacting two dielectric mirrors so that the top quarter-wave films of the two mirrors form a Fabry-Perot cavity having a half-wave thickness. In the new device, we propose to etch an array of sub-wavelength patterns into the top surface of one of the mirrors before forming the cavity. The patterns must have a pitch shorter than the operational wavelength in order to eliminate diffraction. By changing the index of refraction of the half-wave layer, or the optical thickness of the cavity, the patterning is used to shift the pass-band and form an array of interference filters. One approach to producing the array is to change the fill factor of the pattern. Once the filter array is produced it may be mated to a two-dimensional detector array to form a miniature spectrophotometer.
The Saturn accelerator at Sandia National Laboratories is a high power, variable-spectrum, x-ray source capable of simulating radiation effects of nuclear countermeasures on electronic and material components of space systems. It can also function as a pulsed-power and radiation source, and as a diagnostic test bed for a variety of applications. Obtaining highly accurate measurements of the emission spectra is difficult because the high intensity x-rays and MegaAmpere levels of current inside the experiment chamber can damage or destroy electronic measurement devices. For these reasons, an optical based measurement system has been designed, developed and successfully tested in the Saturn accelerator. The system uses fiber optic coupled sensor(s) connected to a specialized Doppler interferometer system which analyzes the shock wave imparted into a target material. This paper describes the optical system, its related components, and material response data of polymethyl methacrylate.
A computationally simple method for estimating gamma-ray skyshine dose rates has been developed on the basis of the line-beam response function. Both Monte Carlo and pointkernel calculations that account for both annihilation and bremsstrahlung were used in the generation of line beam response functions (LBRF) for gamma-ray energies between 10 and 100 MeV. The LBRF is approximated by a three-parameter formula. By combining results with those obtained in an earlier study for gamma energies below 10 MeV, LBRF values are readily and accurately evaluated for source energies between 0.02 and 100 MeV, for source-to-detector distances between 1 and 3000 m, and beam angles as great as 180 degrees. Tables of the parameters for the approximate LBRF are presented. The new response functions are then applied to three simple skyshine geometries, an open silo geometry, an infinite wall, and a rectangular four-wall building. Results are compared to those of previous calculations and to benchmark measurements. A new approach is introduced to account for overhead shielding of the skyshine source and compared to the simplistic exponential-attenuation method used in earlier studies. The effect of the air-ground interface, usually neglected in gamma skyshine studies, is also examined and an empirical correction factor is introduced. Finally, a revised code based on the improved LBRF approximations and the treatment of the overhead shielding is presented, and results shown for several benchmark problems.
A description of a three-level mechanical polysilicon surface-micromachining technology including a discussion of the advantages of this level of process complexity is presented. This technology is capable of forming mechanical elements ranging from simple cantilevered beams to complex, interconnected, interactive, microactuated micromechanisms. The inclusion of a third deposited layer of mechanical polysilicon greatly extends the degree of complexity available for micromechanism design. Additional features of the Sandia three-level process include the use of Chemical-Mechanical Polishing (CMP) for planarization, and the integration of micromechanics with the Sandia CMOS circuit process. The latter effort includes a CMOS-first, tungsten metallization process to allow the CMOS electronics to withstand high-temperature micromechanical processing. Alternatively, a novel micromechanics-first approach wherein the micromechanical devices are processed first in a well below the surface of the CMOS starting material followed by the standard, aluminum metallization CMOS process is also being pursued. Following the description of the polysilicon surface micromachining are examples of the major sensor and actuator projects based on this technology at the Microelectronics Development Laboratory (MDL) at Sandia National Laboratories. Efforts at the MDL are concentrated in the technology of surface micromachining due to the availability of and compatibility with standard CMOS processes. The primary sensors discussed are a silicon nitride membrane pressure sensor, hot polysilicon filaments for calorimetric gas sensing, and a smart hydrogen sensor. Examples of actuation mechanisms coupled to external devices are also presented. These actuators utilize the three-level process (plus an additional passive level) and employ either surface tension or electrostatic forces.
This report contains a comprehensive National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Compliance Guide for the Sandia National Laboratories. It is based on the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) NEPA regulations in 40 CFR Parts 1500 through 1508; the US Department of Energy (DOE) N-EPA implementing procedures in 10 CFR Part 102 1; DOE Order 5440.1E; the DOE ``Secretarial Policy Statement on the National Environmental Policy Act`` of June 1994- Sandia NEPA compliance procedures-, and other CEQ and DOE guidance. The Guide includes step-by-step procedures for preparation of Environmental Checklists/Action Descriptions Memoranda (ECL/ADMs), Environmental Assessments (EAs), and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). It also includes sections on ``Dealing With NEPA Documentation Problems`` and ``Special N-EPA Compliance Issues.``
Structural dynamic testing is concerned with estimation of system properties, including frequency response functions and modal characteristics. These properties are derived from tests on the structure of interest, during which excitations and responses are measured and Fourier techniques are used to reduce the data. The inputs used in a test are frequently radom and excite random responses in the structure of interest. When these random inputs and responses are analyzed they yield estimates of system properties that are random variable and random process realizations. Of course, such estimates of system properties vary randomly from one test to another, but even when deterministic inputs are used to excite a structure, the estimated properties vary from test to test. When test excitations and responses are normally distributed, classical techniques permit us to statistically analyze inputs, responses, and system parameters. However, when the input excitations are non-normal, the system is nonlinear, and/or the property of interest is anything but the simplest, the classical analyses break down. The bootstrap is a technique for the statistical analysis of data that are not necessarily normally distributed. It can be used to statistically analyze any measure of input excitation on response, or any system property, when data are available to make an estimate. It is designed to estimate the standard error, bias, and confidence intervals of parameter estimates. This paper shows how the bootstrap can be applied to the statistical analysis of modal parameters.
An option for controlling contaminant migration from plumes and buried waste sites is to construct a subsurface barrier of a low-permeability material. The successful application of subsurface barriers requires processes to verify the emplacement and effectiveness of barrier and to monitor the performance of a barrier after emplacement. Non destructive and remote sensing techniques, such as geophysical methods, are possible technologies to address these needs. The changes in mechanical, hydrologic and chemical properties associated with the emplacement of an engineered barrier will affect geophysical properties such a seismic velocity, electrical conductivity, and dielectric constant. Also, the barrier, once emplaced and interacting with the in situ geologic system, may affect the paths along which electrical current flows in the subsurface. These changes in properties and processes facilitate the detection and monitoring of the barrier. The approaches to characterizing and monitoring engineered barriers can be divided between (1) methods that directly image the barrier using the contrasts in physical properties between the barrier and the host soil or rock and (2) methods that reflect flow processes around or through the barrier. For example, seismic methods that delineate the changes in density and stiffness associated with the barrier represents a direct imaging method. Electrical self potential methods and flow probes based on heat flow methods represent techniques that can delineate the flow path or flow processes around and through a barrier.
We have developed a working prototype of a grid-based global event detection system based on waveform correlation. The algorithm comes from a long-period detector but we have recast it in a full matrix formulation which can reduce the number of multiplications needed by better than two orders of magnitude for realistic monitoring scenarios. The reduction is made possible by eliminating redundant multiplications in the original formulation. All unique correlations for a given origin time are stored in a correlation matrix (C) which is formed by a full matrix product of a Master Image matrix (M) and a data matrix (D). The detector value at each grid point is calculated by following a different summation path through the correlation matrix. Master Images can be derived either empirically or synthetically. Our testing has used synthetic Master Images because their influence on the detector is easier to understand. We tested the system using the matrix formulation with continuous data from the IRIS (Incorporate Research Institutes for Seismology) broadband global network to monitor a 2 degree evenly spaced surface grid with a time discretization of 1 sps; we successfully detected the largest event in a two hour segment from October 1993. The output at the correct gridpoint was at least 33% larger than at adjacent grid points, and the output at the correct gridpoint at the correct origin time was more than 500% larger than the output at the same gridpoint immediately before or after. Analysis of the C matrix for the origin time of the event demonstrates that there are many significant ``false`` correlations of observed phases with incorrect predicted phases. These false correlations dull the sensitivity of the detector and so must be dealt with if our system is to attain detection thresholds consistent with a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
Bulk micromachining generally refers to processes involving wet chemical etching of structures formed out of the silicon substrate and so is limited to fairly large, crude structures. Surface micromachining allows intricate patterning of thin films of polysilicon and other materials to form essentially two-dimensional layered parts (since the thickness of the parts is limited by the thickness of the deposited films). There is a third type of micromachining in which the part is formed by filling a mold which was defined by photolithographic means. Historically micromachining molds have been formed in some sort of photopolymer, be it with x-ray lithography (``LIGA``) or more conventional UV lithography, with the aim of producing piece parts. Recently, however, several groups including ours at Sandia have independently come up with the idea of forming the mold for mechanical parts by etching into the silicon substrate itself. In Sandia`s mold process, the mold is recessed into the substrate using a deep silicon trench etch, lined with a sacrificial or etch-stop layer, and then filled with any of a number of mechanical materials. The completed structures are not ejected from the mold to be used as piece parts rather, the mold is dissolved from around selected movable segments of the parts, leaving the parts anchored to the substrate. Since the mold is recessed into the substrate, the whole micromechanical structure can be formed, planarized, and integrated with standard silicon microelectronic circuits before the release etch. In addition, unlike surface-micromachined parts, the thickness of the molded parts is limited by the depth of the trench etch (typically 10--50 {mu}m) rather than the thickness of deposited polysilicon (typically 2 {mu}m). The capability of fabricating thicker (and therefore much stiffer and more massive) parts is critical for motion-sensing structures involving large gimballed platforms, proof masses, etc.
As part of a research program in fire science and technology at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), an experimental and computational investigation of the fire phenomenology associated with the presence of a large (3.66 m diameter), fuselage-sized cylindrical calorimeter engulfed in a large (18.9 m diameter) JP-8 pool fire subjected to high (10.2 m/s) winds were performed. The conditions investigated here resulted in a twofold increase in the incident heat flux to the surface of the object relative to heat fluxes typical of large hydrocarbon fires without engulfed objects. Due to the enhanced fuel/air mixing, enhanced turbulence, and larger flame volume, the highest heat fluxes are observed on the leeward side of the calorimeter. Radiative heat fluxes of 150--250 kW/m{sup 2} on this side, with the maximum heat flux occurring near the top of the calorimeter, were measured. Radiative heat fluxes of 60--200 kW/m{sup 2} were measured on the windward side, with the highest heat flux near the bottom of the calorimeter. Measured and predicted heat fluxes to the pool surface of 25--90 kW/m{sup 2} were observed. The presence of the calorimeter tends to decrease the overall fuel consumption rate primarily due to redirection of the flame zone away from the pool surface. Overall, the numerical models does a reasonable job of representing the essential features of the fire environment but under predicts the heat flux to the calorimeter. These results emphasize the importance of considering the wind-induced interaction of fires and large objects when estimating the incident heat fluxes on a engulfed object. The measurements and analyses are of particular interest since few studies to date have addressed cases where the fire and object are of comparable size.
This document presents an overview of the modifications that were done to the Finnigan MAT 271 mass spectrometer used in the Dept. 1823 Inorganic Gas Analysis Lab. Among the alterations to the spectrometer were addition of a new computer, interfaces to the power supply, addition of a multimeter and introduction of a Graphical User Interface software system to run the instrument. The impact of these improvements is also discussed. The appendix details a generic procedure for operating the instrument.
Beryllium because of its low atomic number and high thermal conductivity, is a candidate for both ITER first wall and divertor surfaces. This study addresses the following: why beryllium; design requirements for the ITER divertor; beryllium supply and unirradiated physical/mechanical property database; effects of irradiation on beryllium properties; tritium issues; beryllium health and safety; beryllium-coolant interactions and safety; thermal and mechanical tests; plasma erosion of beryllium; recommended beryllium grades for ITER plasma facing components; proposed manufacturing methods to produce beryllium parts for ITER; emerging beryllium materials; proposed inspection and maintenance techniques for beryllium components and coatings; time table and costs; and the importance of integrating materials and manufacturing personnel with designers.
This SAND report documents the results of an LDRD project undertaken to study the accuracy of terrain-aided navigation coupled with highly accurate topographic maps. A revolutionary new mapping technology, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR), has the ability to make terrain maps of extremely high accuracy and spatial resolution, more than an order of magnitude better than currently available DMA map products. Using a laser altimeter and the Sandia Labs Twin Otter Radar Testbed, fix accuracies of less than 3 meters CEP were obtained over urban and natural terrain regions.
Organic inhibitors can be used to prevent corrosion of metals have application in the electronics industry as solderability preservatives. We have developed a model to describe the action of two inhibitors (benzotriazole and imidazole) during the environmental aging and soldering process. The inhibitors bond with the metal surface and form a barrier that prevents or retards oxidation. At soldering temperatures, the metal-organic complex breaks down leaving an oxide-free metal surface that allows excellent wetting by the molten solder. The presence of the inhibitor retards the wetting rate relative to clean copper but provides a vast improvement relative to oxidized copper.
This report summarizes work on the development of ultra-high-speed semiconductor optical and electronic devices. High-speed operation is achieved by velocity matching the input stimulus to the output signal along the device`s length. Electronic devices such as field-effect transistors (FET`s), should experience significant speed increases by velocity matching the electrical input and output signals along the device. Likewise, optical devices, which are typically large, can obtain significant bandwidths by velocity matching the light being generated, detected or modulated with the electrical signal on the device`s electrodes. The devices discussed in this report utilize truly distributed electrical design based on slow-wave propagation to achieve velocity matching.
This report describes the design and development activities that were involved in the SA3871 Intent Controller ASIC. The SA3871 is a digital gate array component developed for the MC4396 Trajectory Sensing Signal Generator for use in the B61-3/4/10 system as well as a possible future B61-MAST system.