Publications

Recent trends towards finer pitch devices and assembly with lead free solders have resulted in increased interest in NiPd plated component leads by the electronics industry. This paper discusses the performance of NiPd fine pitch components as determined by wettability, assembly performance and solder joint reliability. Assembly evaluations were performed with a lead free solder as well as with eutectic SnPb solder. The compatibility of the NiPd component leads with different circuit board finishes (metallic and organic azole) will also be discussed.

A consortium of United States utility concerns led by the Southern California Edison Company (SCE) is conducting a cooperative project with the US Department of Energy (DOE), Sandia National Laboratories, and industry to convert the 10-MW Solar One Power Tower Pilot Plant to molten nitrate salt technology. The conversion involves installation of a new receiver, a new thermal storage system, and a new steam generator; it utilizes Solar One`s heliostat field and turbine generator. Successful operation of the converted plant, called Solar Two, will reduce economic risks in building initial commercial power tow projects and accelerate the commercial acceptance of this promising renewable energy technology. The estimated cost of Solar Two, including its three-year test period, is $48.5 million. The plant will begin operation in early 1996.

Plasma jet generators have been designed and tested which used an explosive driver and shocktube with a rectangular cross section that optimize the flow velocity and electrical conductivity. The latest in a series of designs has been tested using a reactive load to diagnose the electrical properties of the MHD generator/electromagnet combination. The results of these tests indicate that the plasma jet/MHD generator design does generate a flow velocity greater than 25 km/s and produces several gigawatts of pulsed power in a very small package size. A larger, new generator design is also presented.

A simple and intuitive formalism is presented to describe diffraction in multi-layered periodic structures. We use the well known results from scalar analysis (wave propagation in homogeneous layered media) and show that they can be generalized rather readily to vector problems such as diffraction analysis. Specifically, we derive: (1) generalized Fresnel equations appropriate for reflection and transmission from an infinitely thick grating, (2) a generalized Airy formula for thin-film to describe reflection and transmission of light through a lamellar grating and (3) a matrix propagation method akin to that used for multi-layer thin film analysis. The results developed here complement the recent work on R-matrix and S-matrix propagation algorithms that have been used in connection with modal and differential grating theories. These algorithms have proven to be numerically stable for calculating diffraction efficiencies from deep groove gratings. The formalism developed here expands upon the earlier literature by providing important details that are hitherto unavailable.

Batch-fabricated silicon seismic transducers could revolutionize the discipline of CTBT monitoring by providing inexpensive, easily depolyable sensor arrays. Although our goal is to fabricate seismic sensors that provide the same performance level as the current state-of-the-art ``macro`` systems, if necessary one could deploy a larger number of these small sensors at closer proximity to the location being monitored in order to compensate for lower performance. We have chosen a modified pendulum design and are manufacturing prototypes in two different silicon micromachining fabrication technologies. The first set of prototypes, fabricated in our advanced surface- micromachining technology, are currently being packaged for testing in servo circuits -- we anticipate that these devices, which have masses in the 1--10 {mu}g range, will resolve sub-mG signals. Concurrently, we are developing a novel ``mold`` micromachining technology that promises to make proof masses in the 1--10 mg range possible -- our calculations indicate that devices made in this new technology will resolve down to at least sub-{mu}G signals, and may even approach to 10{sup {minus}10} G/{radical}Hz acceleration levels found in the low-earth-noise model.

Fluorescent microthermal imaging (FMI) involves coating a sample surface with a thin inorganic-based film that, upon exposure to uv light, emits temperature-dependent fluorescence. FMI offers the ability to create thermal maps of integrated circuits with a thermal resolution theoretically limited to 1 m{degree}C and a spatial resolution diffraction-limited to 0.3 {mu}m. Even though FMI has been in use for more than a decade, many factors that can affect the thermal image quality have not been studied well. This paper presents recent results showing the limitations from photon shot noise and the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio from signal averaging. Three important factors in film preparation and characterization are presented that have a significant impact on thermal quality and sensitivity of FMI: uv bleaching, film dilution, and film curing. It is shown how proper film preparation and data collection method can dramatically improve the quality of FMI thermal images.

Computational simulations of the impacts of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) fragments on Jupiter have provided a framework for interpreting the observations. A reasonably consistent picture has emerged, along with a more detailed understanding of atmospheric collisional processes. Several aspects of Earth-impact hazards can be re-evaluated with knowledge gained from observations and from simulations of SL9. In particular, the threat of impact-generated plumes to satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO) should be recognized. Preliminary 2-D computational simulations suggest that impacts of a size that recur about once per century generate plumes that rise to nearly 1000 kilometers over an area thousands of kilometers in diameter. Detailed modeling of such plumes should be carried out to quantify this threat to satellites in the near-Earth environment. Careful observations of high-energy atmospheric entry events should be made using both satellite and ground-based instruments to provide validation for these computational models.

This contribution describes a proposed information element that can convey authentication information within an ATM signaling message. The design of this information element provides a large amount of flexibility to the user because it does not specify a particular signature algorithm, and it does not specify which information elements must accompany the Authentication IE in a signaling message. This allows the user to implement authenticated signaling based on her site`s security policies and performance requirements.

Both n- and p-type doping have been achieved in GaN using Si{sup +} or Mg{sup +}/P{sup +} implantation, respectively, followed annealing at {ge} 1050{degrees}C. Using proximity rapid thermal annealing (10sec) the GaN surface retains both smooth morphology and its original stoichiometry. Variable temperature Hall measurements reveal approximate energy levels of 62meV for the implanted Si and 171meV for the Mg, which are similar to their values in epitaxially grown GaN. Implant isolation of both n- and p-type GaN, and n-type In{sub 0.75}Al{sub 0.25}N with multiple energy inert species (e.g. N{sup +} or F{sup +}) produces high resistivity ({ge}10{sup 8}{omega}/{open_square}) after subsequent annealing in the range 600-700{degrees}C. Smaller increases in sheet resistance are observed for In{sub x}Ga{sup 1-x}N (x=0.33-0.75) under the same conditions due to the smaller energy bandgaps and the shallower energy levels of the damage-related states controlling the resistivity.

A life prediction model is being developed by the authors for application to metal matrix composites (MMC`s). The systems under study are continuous silicon carbide fibers imbedded in titanium matrix. The model utilizes a computationally based framework based on thermodynamics and continuum mechanics, and accounts for matrix inelasticity, damage evolution, and environmental degradation due to oxidation. The computational model utilizes the finite element method, and an evolutionary analysis of a unit cell is accomplished via a time stepping algorithm. The computational scheme accounts for damage growth such as fiber-matrix debonding, surface cracking, and matrix cracking via the inclusion of cohesive zone elements in the unit cell. These elements are located based on experimental evidence also obtained by the authors. The current paper outlines the formulation utilized by the authors to solve this problem, and recent results are discussed. Specifically, results are given for a four-ply unidirectional composite subjected to cyclic fatigue loading at 650{degrees}C both in air and inert gas. The effects of oxidation on the life of the composite are predicted with the model, and the results are compared to limited experimental results.

This paper describes the use of {open_quotes}Formula 456{close_quotes} an aliphatic amine cured epoxy for impregnating coils. Methylene dianiline (MDA) has been used for more than 20 years as the curing agent for various epoxy formulations throughout the Department of Energy. Sandia National Laboratories began the process of replacing MDA with other formulations because of regulations imposed by OSHA on the use of MDA.

Optical diagnostics are extremely useful in fluid mechanics because they generally have high inherent bandwidth, and are non-intrusive. However, since optical probe measurements inherently integrate all information along the optical path, it is often difficult to isolate out-of-plane components in 3-dimensional flow events. It is also hard to make independent measurements of internal flow structure. Using an arrangement of one-dimensional wavefront sensors, we have developed a system that uses tomographic reconstruction to make two-dimensional measurements in an arbitrary flow. These measurements provide complete information in a plane normal to the flow. We have applied this system to the subsonic free jet because of the wide range of flow scales available. These measurements rely on the development of a series of one-dimensional wavefront sensors that are used to measure line-integral density variations in the flow of interest. These sensors have been constructed using linear CCD cameras and binary optics lenslet arrays. In designing these arrays, we have considered the coherent coupling between adjacent lenses and have made comparisons between theory and experimental noise measurements. The paper will present examples of the wavefront sensor development, line-integral measurements as a function of various experimental parameters, and sample tomographic reconstructions.

Adaptive finite element analysis demands a great deal of computational resources, and as such is most appropriately solved in a massively parallel computer environment. This analysis will require other parallel algorithms before it can fully utilize MP computers, one of which is parallel adaptive meshing. A version of the paving algorithm is being designed which operates in parallel but which also retains the robustness and other desirable features present in the serial algorithm. Adaptive paving in a production mode is demonstrated using a Babuska-Rheinboldt error estimator on a classic linearly elastic plate problem. The design of the parallel paving algorithm is described, and is based on the decomposition of a surface into {open_quotes}virtual{close_quotes} surfaces. The topology of the virtual surface boundaries is defined using mesh entities (mesh nodes and edges) so as to allow movement of these boundaries with smoothing and other operations. This arrangement allows the use of the standard paving algorithm on subdomain interiors, after the negotiation of the boundary mesh.

An overview of the major sensor and actuator projects using the micromachining capabilities of the Microelectronics Development Laboratory at Sandia National Laboratories are presented. Development efforts are underway for a variety of micromechanical devices and control electronics for those devices. Our efforts are concentrated in the area of surface micromachining. Pressure sensors based on silicon nitride diaphragms and hot polysilicon filaments for calorimetric gas sensing have been developed. Accelerometers based upon high-aspect ratio surface micromachining are being developed. Actuation mechanisms employing either electrostatic or steam power are being combined with a three-level active (plus an additional passive level) polysilicon surface micromachining process to couple these actuators to external devices. The results of efforts toward integration of micromechanics with the driving electronics for actuators or the amplification/signal processing electronics for sensors is also described. This effort includes a CMOS-first, tungsten metallization process to allow the CMOS electronics to withstand high-temperature micromechanical processing. Also, a unique micromechanics-first approach is being pursued in which the micromechanical devices are embedded below the surface of the starting material for the CMOS.

An End-To-End Simulation capability for software development and validation of missile flight software on the actual embedded computer has been developed utilizing a 486 PC, i860 DSP coprocessor, embedded flight computer and custom dual port memory interface hardware. This system allows real-time interrupt driven embedded flight software development and checkout. The flight software runs in a Sandia Digital Airborne Computer (SANDAC) and reads and writes actual hardware sensor locations in which IMU (Inertial Measurements Unit) data resides. The simulator provides six degree of freedom real-time dynamic simulation, accurate real-time discrete sensor data and acts on commands and discretes from the flight computer. This system was utilized in the development and validation of the successful premier flight of the Digital Miniature Attitude Reference System (DMARS) in January 1995 at the White Sands Missile Range on a two stage attitude controlled sounding rocket.

Millimeter wave resonant measurements are commonly used for surface and near-surface materials characterization including the detection of cracks and defects, analysis of semiconducting and dielectric materials, and analysis of metallic electrical properties beneath coatings. Recent work has also shown the approach to be useful in evaluating corrosion products and the detection of incipient corrosion and corrosion cracking. In the analysis area, complex permittivity data of the corrosion products can be extracted, usually with accuracy of a few percent or better, to aid in identification of the product and possibly of mechanisms. In the detection area, corrosion-related cracks of order 100{mu}m or less near the surface have been detected and corrosion products have been detected beneath a variety of paints. Surface preparation requirements are minimal, particularly compared to some optical techniques, giving increased hope of field applicability. A number of examples of NDI on aircraft related materials and structures will be presented along with an assessment of detection and accuracy limits.

A nonequilibrium continuum mixture model has been incorporated into the CTH shock physics code to describe deflagration-to-detonation transition in granular energetic materials. This approach treats multiple thermodynamic and mechanics fields including the effects of relative material motion, rate-dependent compaction and interphase exchange of mass, momentum and energy. A finite volume description is formulated and internal state variables are solved using an operator-splitting method. Numerical simulations of low-velocity impact on a weakly-confined porous propellant bed are presented which display lateral wall release leading to curved compaction and reaction wave behavior.

The purpose of this discussion is to introduce the session on the Progress on the Resolution of Severe Accident Issues. There has been much work in the area of resolution of severe accident issues over the past few years. This work has been focused on those issues most important to risk as assessed by comprehensive studies such as NUREG-1150. In particular, issues associated with early containment failure have been analyzed. These efforts to resolve issues have been hampered by the fact that {open_quotes}issue resolution{close_quotes} has not always been well defined. The term {open_quotes}issue resolution{close_quotes} conjures tip different images for the regulator, the accident analyst, the physicist, and the probabalist. In fact it is common to have as many different images of issue resolution as there are people in the room. This issue is complicated by the fact that the uncertainty in severe accident issues is enormous. (When convolved, the quantitative uncertainty in an integrated analysis due to severe accident issues can span several orders of magnitude.) In this summary, hierarchy is presented in an attempt to add some perspective to the resolution of issues in the face of large uncertainties. Recommendations are also made for analysts communicating in the area of issue resolution.

It is well-known that dry pressing of ceramic powders leads to density gradients in a ceramic compact resulting in non-uniform shrinkage during densification. This necessitates diamond grinding to final dimensions which, in addition to being an extra processing step, greatly increases the manufacturing cost of ceramic components. To develop methods to control and thus mitigate density variations in compacted powders, it has been an objective of researchers to better understand the mechanics of the compaction process and the underlying material and tooling effects on the formation of density gradients. This paper presents a review of models existing in the literature related to the compaction behavior of ceramic powders. In particular, this paper focuses on several well-known compaction models that predict pressure and density variations in powder compacts.

Models used in performance assessment and site characterization activities related to nuclear waste disposal rely on simplified representations of solute/rock interactions, hydrologic flow field and the material properties of the rock layers surrounding the repository. A crucial element in the design of these models is the validity of these simplifying assumptions. An intermediate-scale experiment is being carried out at the Experimental Engineered Test Facility at Los Alamos Laboratory by the Los Alamos and Sandia National Laboratories to develop a strategy to validate key geochemical and hydrological assumptions in performance assessment models used by the Yucca Mountain Site Characterization Project.

DOE contracted with Sandia to install a radar acquisition system (RAMS) to gather aircraft flight data near the Pantex Plant in Amarillo, TX. To support this effort, data reduction tools were needed to help analyze the radar data. Plot-flight is one of several data reduction tools that comprise the Sandia Airspace Recording System (SARS). The radar data is needed to support the Pantex Environmental Impact Study. Plot-flight is a DOS-based plot program that allows analysts to replay pre-recorded air traffic over Albuquerque and Amarillo. The program is flexible enough to permit replay of daily flights either sequentially, by range, or by Beacon ID. In addition to replay, the program is setup for data entry. Analysts can correlate electronic aircraft flight data to the green strip flights logs obtained from the local air traffic control center. The green strips are used by air traffic controllers to record each scheduled flight. The green strips have information not available electronically such as aircraft type and aircraft ID. This type of information is necessary to accommodate the current models used in aircraft crash analysis. Plot-flight correlates the hand-written information from the green strips to the recorded aircraft flight.

The authors have performed experiments to study the effect of thermal degradation on shock sensitivity and growth to detonation of several high-density plastic bonded explosives, confined in stainless steel cells. Assemblies were heated in situ in the target chamber of a light-gas gun. Confinement was varied to allow, in some cases, for thermal expansion of the explosive, and in other cases to vent the decomposition gases. Particle velocity profiles were measured using VISAR at a LiF window interface. Results for the IHE PBX-9502 showed that its sensitivity to shock initiation could be dramatically increased or decreased depending on the confinement conditions during heating. Effects were much less pronounced for PBX-9404 and PBX-9501.

In the post-Cold War climate of reduced budgets at the national laboratories, the Sites Planning Department at Sandia National Laboratories was faced with the problem of securing funding for capital construction projects in a very competitive environment. The Department of Energy (DOE), felt that requests for new facilities were not always well coordinated with its mission needs. The Sites Planning Department needed to revolutionize the way they were doing business. To be successful in obtaining approval and funding for future facilities, they recognized the need to concentrate their efforts on project proposals that tap strategic programs at DOE. The authors developed a series of new processes to identify, evaluate, prioritize, and develop line item project proposals to request approval and obtain funding. A matrixed group of sites and facilities directors was formed to establish criteria and make preliminary recommendations to upper management. Matrixed working groups were also established at the staff level to develop and prepare projects for the prioritization process. Ultimately, similar processes will be applied to all project types, and a prioritized plan generated for each. These plans will become the blueprint for an overarching strategic site plan. What started as a means of increasing success in obtaining approval and funding of capital projects has launched a whole new approach to project development that permits incorporation of facilities planning into overall corporate strategic planning.

The purpose of this program was to develop a calibration curve (stress as a function of change in gauge resistance/gauge resistance) and to obtain gauge repeatability data for Micro-Measurements stripped manganin thin-foiled gauges up to 6.1 GPa in ALOX (42% by volume alumina in Epon 828 epoxy) material. A light-gas gun was used to drive an ALOX impactor into the ALOX target containing four gauges in a centered diamond arrangement. Tilt and velocity of the impactor were measured along with the gauge outputs. Impact stresses from 0.5 to 6.1 GPa were selected in increments of 0.7 GPa with duplicate tests done at 0.5, 3.3 and 6.1 GPa. A total of twelve tests were conducted using ALOX. Three initial tests were done using polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) as the impactor and target at an impact pressure of 3.0 GPa for comparison of gauge output with analysis and literature values. The installed gauge, stripped of its backing, has a nominal thickness of 5 {micro}m. The thin gauge and high speed instrumentation allowed higher time resolution measurements than can be obtained with manganin wire.

The application of computer simulation to grain growth and recrystallization was strongly stimulated in the early 80s by the realization that Monte Carlo models could be applied to problems of grain structure evolution. By extension of the Ising model for domain modeling of magnetic domains to the Potts model (with generalized spin numbers) it was then possible to represent discretely grains (domains) by regions of similarly oriented sets of material (lattice) points. In parallel with this fascinating development, there also occured notable work on analytical models, especially by Abbruzzese and Bunge, which has been particularly useful for understanding the variation of texture (crystallographic preferred orientation) during grain growth processes. Geometric models of recrystallization, worked on most recently and productively by Nes et al., have been useful in connection with grain size prediction as a result of recrystallization. Also, mesh-based models have been developed to a high degree by Kawasaki, Fradkov and others, and, rather recently, by Humphreys to model not just grain growth but also the nucleation process in recrystallization. These models have the strength that they deal with the essential features of grains, i.e. the nodes, but have some limitations when second phases must be considered. These various approaches to modeling of recrystallization processes will be reviewed, with a special emphasis on practical approaches to implementing the Potts model. This model has been remarkably successful in modeling such diverse phenomena as dynamic recrystallization, secondary recrystallization (abnormal grain growth), particle-inhibited recrystallization, and grain structure evolution in soldering and welding. In summary, the application of mesoscopic simulation to the phenomenon of recrystallization has yielded much new insight into some longstanding deficiencies in our understanding.