Publications

Verification of a video image has been a major problem for safeguards for several years. Various verification schemes have been tried on analog video signals ever since the mid-1970`s. These schemes have provided a measure of protection but have never been widely adopted. The development of reasonably priced complex video processing integrated circuits makes it possible to digitize a video image and then compress the resulting digital file into a smaller file without noticeable loss of resolution. Authentication and/or encryption algorithms can be more easily applied to digital video files that have been compressed. The compressed video files require less time for algorithm processing and image transmission. An important safeguards application for authenticated, compressed, digital video images is in unattended video surveillance systems and remote monitoring systems. The use of digital images in the surveillance system makes it possible to develop remote monitoring systems that send images over narrow bandwidth channels such as the common telephone line. This paper discusses the video compression process, authentication algorithm, and data format selected to transmit and store the authenticated images.

The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (SKI) and the US Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored work on a Remote Monitoring System (RMS) that was installed in August 1994 at the Barseback Works north of Malmo, Sweden. The RMS was designed to test the front end detection concept that would be used for unattended remote monitoring activities. Front end detection reduces the number of video images recorded and provides additional sensor verification of facility operations. The function of any safeguards Containment and Surveillance (C/S) system is to collect information which primarily is images that verify the operations at a nuclear facility. Barseback is ideal to test the concept of front end detection since most activities of safeguards interest is movement of spent fuel which occurs once a year. The RMS at Barseback uses a network of nodes to collect data from microwave motion detectors placed to detect the entrance and exit of spent fuel casks through a hatch. A video system using digital compression collects digital images and stores them on a hard drive and a digital optical disk. Data and images from the storage area are remotely monitored via telephone from Stockholm, Sweden and Albuquerque, NM, USA. These remote monitoring stations operated by SKI and SNL respectively, can retrieve data and images from the RMS computer at the Barseback Facility. The data and images are encrypted before transmission. This paper presents details of the RMS and test results of this approach to front end detection of safeguard activities.

June 1993, the A-PRIMED project (Agile Product Realization of electrMEchanical Devices) was formed with a concurrent engineering team of product designers, analysts, CNC machinists, robotic assembly scientists, electronics communications developers, statisticians and human factors scientists at Sandia National Laboratories, to develop and demonstrate a process for a much faster design-to-production cycle for precision electromechanical devices. The team had to develop the culture and infrastructure to support communications between remotely located members, as well as demonstrate a shortened cycle time made possible by developing new technologies. These new technologies were then adopted by the team and introduced to their work partners to support new work processes. By March 1995, the A-PRIMED team has used the new technologies and work processes to design and build qualified new products in only 24 days.

Sorption of iodide (I{sup {minus}}) on cinnabar (HgS) and chalcocite (Cu{sub 2}S) was examined as a function of pH at 25{degrees}C in a series of batch experiments. Calculated distribution ratios (K{sub d}) far exceed those reported for other minerals; maximal K{sub d}`s of 1375 cc/g (Cu{sub 2}S) and 3080 c/g (HgS) were observed between pH 4-5, but wre substantial at all pH`s measured (4 < pH < 10). Iodide sorption apparently occurs by the formation of an insoluble surface solid solution with exposed Hg and Cu sites. Surface solid solution formation is favored at low pH due to the lessened electrostatic repulsion of the iodide ion by the sulfide surfaces.

A numerical solution for buoyant natural convection within a square enclosure containing a fluid with highly temperature dependent viscosity is presented. Although the fluid properties employed do not represent any real fluid, the large variation in the fluid viscosity with temperature is characteristic of turbulent flow modeling with eddy-viscosity concepts. Results are obtained using a primitive variable formulation and the resistor method. The results presented include velocity, temperature and pressure distributions within the enclosure as well as shear stress and heat flux distributions along the enclosure walls. Three mesh refinements were employed and uncertainty values are suggested for the final mesh refinement. These solutions are part of a contributed benchmark solution set for the subject problem.

The isotope {sup 99}Mo would be produced at Sandia using ACRR and the collocated Hot Cell Facility. {sup 99}Mo would be produced by irradiating targets coated with {sup 235}U in the form of highly enriched U{sub 3}O{sub 8}; after 7 days, the target would be removed and the isotope extracted using the Cintichem process. The Monte Carlo neutronics computer code MCNP was used to determine the optimum configuration for production, using various fractions of the US demand. Although ACRR operates at a low power level, the US demand for {sup 99}Mo can be easily met using a reasonable number of targets.

Techniques for characterizing density gradients generated during typical powder compaction processes are reviewed and several are evaluated. The techniques reviewed are ultrasonic velocity measurements, laser ultrasonic velocity measurements, x-ray radiography, autoradiography, computer tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and simple image analysis of polished cross-sections. Experimental results are reported for all of these techniques except autoradiography, CT and MRI. The test specimens examined were right circular cylinders of a high length/diameter ratio (to ensure significant density variation) pressed from commercial spray-dried alumina powders. Although the density gradients could be detected with all four techniques, ultrasonic velocity measurements gave the best contour map of gradients and is therefore most suitable for model validation. On the other hand, it was concluded that x-ray radiography is preferable in situations where cost and/or number of samples are more important that high resolution.

Bimodal space reactor systems provide both thermal propulsion for the spacecraft orbital transfer and electrical power to the spacecraft bus once it is on station. These systems have the potential to increase both the available payload in high energy orbits and the available power to that payload. These increased mass and power capabilities can be used to either reduce mission cost by permitting the use of smaller launch vehicles or to provide increased mission performance from the current launch vehicle. A major barrier to the deployment of these bimodal systems has been the cost associated with their development. This paper describes a bimodal spacecraft bus with performance potential to permit more than 70% of the instrumented payload of the Titan IV/Centaur to be launched from the Atlas IIAS. The development cost is minimized by basing the design on existing component technologies.

Smokes are frequently used as visual obscurants in access delay applications. A new generation of low temperature pyrotechnic smokes is being developed. Terephthalic Acid (TPA) smoke was developed by the U.S. Army and Sebacic Acid (SA) smoke is being developed by Thiokol Corp. The advantages these smokes offer over traditional pyrotechnic smokes include; low generation temperature (approximately 450{degree}C), lower toxicity, and lower corrosivity. The low generation temperature reduces smoke layering effects and allows the addition of sensory irritants, such as o-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile (CS), to the formulation. Some advantages low temperature pyrotechnic smokes offer over nonpyrotechnic smokes include; low cost, simplicity, compactness, light weight, long storage life, and orientation insensitive operation. Low cost permits distribution of multiple units for reduced vulnerability and refill flexibility. Some disadvantages may include the combustibility of the smoke particulate; however, the published lower explosive limit of the mentioned materials is approximately ten times greater than the concentration required for effective obscuration. The TPA smoke cloud contains small quantities of benzene, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide; no benzene or formaldehyde was identified during preliminary SA smoke analyses performed by Thiokol Corp. Sandia performed tests and analyses on TPA smoke to determine the smoke cloud composition, the quantity of particulate produced per canister, and the relationship between airborne particulate concentration and measured optical density values. Current activities include characterization of SA smoke.

Because of the low humidity environments required in the fabrication of nuclear explosives, assembly technicians can be charged to tens of kilovolts while operating, for example, compressed air, venturi-type, `explosion proof` vacuum cleaners. Nuclear explosives must be isolated from all sources of, and return paths for, AC power and from any part of the lightning protection system. This requirement precludes the use of static ground conductors to drain any charge accumulations. Accordingly, an experimental study of the basic charging mechanisms associated with vacuum operations were identified, the charge generation efficacies of various commercial cleaners were established, and a simple method for neutralizing the charge was devised.

Polymeric silica sols, were deposited on commercial {gamma}-alumina supports to prepare gas separation membranes. Optimization of the sol fractal dimension and radius of gyration and minimization of condensation rate led to formation of a discrete film with pores of molecular dimensions. Two coatings of this sol (A2{sup **}) led to a membrane with ideal separation factor of 7 for helium versus nitrogen after calcination to 400C (helium permeance 0.002 cm{sup 3}/cm{sup 2}-s-cm Hg). Partial sintering of these membranes resulted in a further reduction in pore size or narrowing of pore size distribution as evidenced by larger separation factors e.g. 9 for helium versus nitrogen (helium permeance 0.0028 cm{sup 3}/cm{sup 2}-s-cm Hg) with only one A2{sup **} coating. Single gas measurements also showed high ideal separation factors for helium versus methane, propylene, sulfur hexafluoride and carbon dioxide. The deposited A2{sup **} membrane was reacted with titanium isopropoxide (Ti(O i-Pr){sub 4}) to improve both its thermal and chemical stability and modify its pore size. This reaction led to an increase in the membrane selectivity to >300 for He versus N{sub 2} below to 120C, and CO{sub 2} versus CH{sub 4}, when measured below 200C. A2{sup **} was also used as a host matrix for preparing imogolite composite membranes that showed molecular sieving behavior.

The aluminum alloy process implemented in Sandia`s Photovoltaic Device Fabrication Laboratory (PDFL) has major beneficial effects on the performance of commercial multicrystalline-silicon (mc-Si) substrates. Careful analysis of identically processed cells (except for the alloyed layer) in matched mc-Si substrates clearly indicates that the majority of the benefit arises from improved bulk minority carrier diffusion length. Based on spectral response measurements and PC-1D modeling the authors have observed improvements due to the alloy process of up to 400% in the average diffusion length in moderate-area cells and around 50% in large-area cells. The diffusion length is dramatically improved in the interior of the silicon grains in alloyed substrates, resulting in the majority of the recombination occurring at the grain boundaries and localized areas with high defect densities.

During the January 1994 Summit Presidents Clinton and Yeltsin agreed on the goal of ensuring the ``transparency and irreversibility`` of the nuclear arms reduction process. As a result, negotiations are presently underway between the United States Government and the Russian Federation to confirm the stockpiles of plutonium and highly enriched uranium removed from nuclear weapons. In December 1994 the United States presented a paper to the Russian Federation proposing additional measures to provide broader transparency of nuclear arms reduction. The US Department of Energy is studying the implementation of these broader transparency measures at appropriate DOE facilities. The results of the studies include draft protocols for implementation, assessments of the implementation procedures and the impacts on the facilities and estimates of the cost to implement these measures at various facilities.

Under the Department of Energy (DOE)/United States Air Force (USAF) Memorandum of Understanding, a system is being designed that will use high pressure carbon dioxide for the separation of oils, greases, and solvents from non-hazardous solid waste. The contaminants are dissolved into the high pressure carbon dioxide and precipitated out upon depressurization. The carbon dioxide solvent can then be recycled for continued use. Excellent extraction capability for common manufacturing oils, greases, and solvents has been measured. It has been observed that extraction performance follows the dilution model if a constant flow system is used. The solvents tested are extremely soluble and have been extracted to 100% under both liquid and mild supercritical carbon dioxide conditions. These data are being used to design a 200 liter extraction system.

The widely dispersed, unmanned launch facilities (LFs) for land-based ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles) currently do not have visual assessment capability for existing intrusion alarms. The security response force currently must assess each alarm on-site. Remote assessment will enhance manpower, safety, and security efforts. Sandia National Laboratories was tasked by the USAF Electronic Systems Center to research, recommend, and demonstrate a cost-effective remote video assessment capability at missile LFs. The project`s charter was to provide: system concepts; market survey analysis; technology search recommendations; and operational hardware demonstrations for remote video assessment from a missile LF to a remote security center via a cost-effective transmission medium and without using visible, on-site lighting. The technical challenges of this project were to: analyze various video transmission media and emphasize using the existing missile system copper line which can be as long as 30 miles; accentuate and extremely low-cost system because of the many sites requiring system installation; integrate the video assessment system with the current LF alarm system; and provide video assessment at the remote sites with non-visible lighting.

The WIPP Disposal Room Model (DRM) is a numerical model with three major components constitutive models of TRU waste, crushed salt backfill, and intact halite -- and several secondary components, including air gap elements, slidelines, and assumptions on symmetry and geometry. A sensitivity analysis of the Disposal Room Model was initiated on two of the three major components (waste and backfill models) and on several secondary components as a group. The immediate goal of this component sensitivity analysis (Phase I) was to sort (rank) model parameters in terms of their relative importance to model response so that a Monte Carlo analysis on a reduced set of DRM parameters could be performed under Phase II. The goal of the Phase II analysis will be to develop a probabilistic definition of a disposal room porosity surface (porosity, gas volume, time) that could be used in WIPP Performance Assessment analyses. This report documents a literature survey which quantifies the relative importance of the secondary room components to room closure, a differential analysis of the creep consolidation model and definition of a follow-up Monte Carlo analysis of the model, and an analysis and refitting of the waste component data on which a volumetric plasticity model of TRU drum waste is based. A summary, evaluation of progress, and recommendations for future work conclude the report.

This paper presents a survey of technologies useful in providing early warning in physical security systems. Early warning is important in virtually all types of security systems whether they are used for temporary (tactical, portable, or semi-permanent) applications, border warning, fixed-site detection, or standoff surveillance detection. With the exception of the standoff surveillance detection systems, all systems discussed in this paper usually involve a moving target. The fact that a person(s) to be detected in a standoff surveillance scenario is not moving presents challenging problems and requires different applications of technology. The technologies commonly used to detect moving targets and some suggestions for detection of stationary targets are addressed in this paper.

The Department of Energy`s Office of Fissile Material Disposition (FMD) is analyzing long-term storage and disposition options for surplus weapons-usable fissile materials, preparing a programmatic environmental impact statement (PEIS), preparing for a record of decision (ROD) regarding this material and conducting other activities. The primary security objectives of this program are to reduce major security risks and strengthen arms reduction and nonproliferation (NP). To help achieve these objectives, a safeguards and security (S&S) team consisting of participants from Sandia, Los Alamos, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories was established. The S&S activity for this program is a cross-cutting task which addresses all of the FMD program options. It includes both domestic and international safeguards and includes areas such as physical protection, nuclear materials accountability and material containment and surveillance. This paper will discuss the activities of the Fissile Materials Disposition Program (FMDP) S&S team as well as some specific S&S issues associated with various FMDP options/facilities. Some of the items to be discussed include the threat, S&S requirements, S&S criteria for assessing risk, S&S issues concerning fissile material processing/facilities, and international and domestic safeguards.

An experimental investigation into active control of bending vibrations in thick bar and plate-like structural elements is described. This work is motivated by vibration problems in machine tools and photolithography machines that require greater control authority than available from conventional surface mounted PZT patches or PVDF films. Focus of this experiment is a cantilevered circular steel bar in which PZT stacks are mounted in cutouts near the bar root. Axially aligned and offset from the neutral axis, these actuators control the bending vibrations by generating moments in the bar through their compressive loads. A Positive Feedback control law is used to significantly augment the damping in the first bending mode. Implications of the experimental results for machine tool stability enhancement are discussed.

Photonic device activities at Sandia National Laboratories are founded on an extensive materials research program that has expanded to include device development, and an applications focus that heavily emphasizes communications and interconnects. The resulting program spans a full range of photonics research, development, and applications projects, from materials synthesis and device fabrication to packaging, test, and subsystem development. The heart of this effort is the Compound Semiconductor Research Laboratory which was established in 1988 to bring together device and materials research and development to support Sandia`s role in weapons technologies. This paper presents an overview of Sandia`s photonics program and its directions, using three communications-based applications as examples.

Sandia is developing a Personnel and Material Tracking System (PAMTRAK) which uses a variety of techniques to monitor material inside a vault in real-time. It can detect material movement using video cameras inside the vault or motion sensors attached to the material. It also contains two prototype attribute monitoring systems that continuously measure material weight, temperature or movement. A site can use any of these alone or together to extend physical inventory intervals. PAMTRAK can reduce the cost of storing material by reducing inventory frequency and radiation exposure to workers. Analysis at Savannah River in 1992 estimated that installing PAMTRAK in the 7 active and future vaults at that site would save $1,073,000 per year by reducing inventory frequency from monthly to yearly. Performing similar calculations now, assuming lower radiation exposure limits of 700m Rem per year, new inventory reduction guidelines allowing a baseline interval of 6 months, and an achieved inventory interval of 3 years, results in an estimated average savings of $400,000 per year. PAMTRAK, since it is real-time, can detect theft or diversion soon enough to give the guard force a chance of recovering the material and apprehending the perpetrator. In performing an inventory a site typically checks only a fraction of the material using random, statistical sampling, while PAMTRAK monitors all material in the vault. In addition to static environments such as vaults, PAMTRAK can be used to protect material in active work areas. Several of the sensor types can ignore activity around material but still report alarms if the material is moved or handled. PAMTRAK includes a personnel tracking capability that allows a site to monitor and restrict personnel movements. It can exclude workers from designated areas unless they have explicit permission to be there. It can also enforce the 2-person rule by requiring a worker to be accompanied by at least one other qualified worker.

When software is used in safety-critical, security-critical, or mission-critical situations, it is imperative to understand and manage the risks involved. A risk assessment methodology and toolset have been developed which are specific to software systems. This paper describes the concepts of the methodology, with emphasis on the experience of designing a toolset to support the methodology. Also presented are results of applying the methodology to two real software-based products: the software toolset itself, and a network firewall.

This glossary was prepared in fulfillment of the Glossary Preparation Task identified in the Program Plan for providing Assistance to the Russian Federation in Nuclear Material Control and Accounting and Physical Protection. The Program Plan is part of the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program as provided for under House Resolution (H.R.) 3807 (Title II, as referenced under Public Law (P.L.) 102-229. The terms in this glossary were derived from physical protection training material prepared at Sandia. The training material, and thus refinements to the glossary, has undergone years of development in presentation to both domestic and international audiences. Also, Russian Colleagues and interpreters have reviewed the translations for accuracy.

A method of determining the dynamic operating cost benefits of energy storage systems for utility applications is presented. The production costing program DYNASTORE is used to analyze economic benefits for ``utility B,`` an isolated island utility, using heuristic unit commitment algorithms. The unit commitment is done using chronologic load data and a detailed model of the utility characteristics. Several unit commitment scenarios are run for utility B, and the results are presented. Comparisons between various Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) applications, as well as cases with and without battery storage, are shown. Results show that for utility B, a BESS of 300 MW size used for either load leveling or spinning reserve provides the greatest economic benefit.

An investigation was made into the effect of microstructure on the peak toughness and shape of the crack growth resistance curves for two ceramic-metal composites. An Al{sup 2}O{sup 3}/Al composite formed by Reactive Metal Penetration was used along with an AlN/Al composite formed using a reactive infiltration technique. The results indicate that the toughness increases with an increase in the volume fraction of the metal phase for a particular composite composition, and the peak toughness and shape of the R-Curve also depend on the composite microstructure and metal composition.