Plasma processes for etching and desmear of electronic components and printed wiring boards (PWB) are difficult to predict and control. Non-uniformity of most plasma processes and sensitivity to environmental changes make it difficult to maintain process stability from day to day. To assure plasma process performance, weight loss coupons or post-plasma destructive testing must be used. The problem with these techniques is that they are not real-time methods and do not allow for immediate diagnosis and process correction. These tests often require scrapping some fraction of a batch to insure the integrity of the rest. Since these tests verify a successful cycle with post-plasma diagnostics, poor test results often determine that a batch is substandard and the resulting parts unusable. These tests are a costly part of the overall fabrication cost. A more efficient method of testing would allow for constant monitoring of plasma conditions and process control. Process anomalies should be detected and corrected before the parts being treated are damaged. Real time monitoring would allow for instantaneous corrections. Multiple site monitoring would allow for process mapping within one system or simultaneous monitoring of multiple systems. Optical emission spectroscopy conducted external to the plasma apparatus would allow for this sort of multifunctional analysis without perturbing the glow discharge. In this paper, optical emission spectroscopy for non-intrusive, in situ process control will be explored along with applications of this technique towards process control, failure analysis and endpoint determination.
To verify the excitonic nature of the light-emitting state in PPV, fluorescence intensities and decay lifetimes were investigated as a function of excitation intensity. The results agree with the behavior predicted by the molecular exciton model. In particular, exciton-exciton annihilation causes the fluorescence intensity to saturate and the fluorescence lifetime to shorten at high exciton densities. In addition, the exciton annihilation, and thus diffusion, coefficients are found to be relatively large, even at low temperatures, indicating that exciton migration is important in PPV. These results indicate that the fluorescent (photoluminescent) state in PPV is excitonic in nature. The results argue against the band model where high mobility at reduced temperatures is not expected because the light-emitting species, neutral bipolarons, are associated with large lattice distortions.
Diametral compression strength distributions and the compaction behavior and of irregular shape 150-200 μm ceramic granules and uniform-size 210 μm glass spheres were measured to determine how granule strength variability relates to compaction behavior of granular assemblies. High variability in strength, represented by low Weibull modulus values (m<3) was observed for ceramic granules having a distribution of sizes and shapes, and for uniform-size glass spheres. Compaction pressure data were also analyzed using a Weibull distribution function, and the results were very similar to those obtained from the diametral compression strength tests for the same material. This similarity suggests that it may be possible to model granule compaction using a weakest link theory, whereby an assemblage of granules is viewed as the links of a chain, and failure of the weakest granule (i.e., the weakest link) leads to rearrangement and compaction. Additionally, with the use of Weibull statistics, it appears to be possible to infer the variability in strength of individual granules from a simple pressure compaction test, circumventing the tedious task of testing individual granules.
In ceramic manufacturing processes such as dry-pressing, correlations between applied compacting pressure and resultant powder compact density are essential for defining reliable process conditions for ceramic components. Pressure-density diagrams have been developed as a tool for both process control and for understanding the compaction behavior of different powders. These types of diagrams, however, pertain only to the average properties of a powder compact and do not address a significant issue in powder compaction processes: the formation of density gradients within the compact. Continuum-based mechanics models of varying complexity have addressed the influence of frictional forces acting at the powder-die wall interface which dissipate the applied pressure throughout the compact. Resulting pressure distribution models are then typically coupled with empirical functions relating pressure and density to obtain a green density distribution in the compact. All of these models predict similar trends; however, none predict the distribution with sufficient accuracy to be considered as a design tool for industrial applications.
Because the components of a multiphase flow often exhibit different electrical properties, a variety of probes have been developed to study such flows by measuring impedance in the region of interest. Researchers are now using electric fields to reconstruct the impedance distribution within a measurement volume via Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT). EIT systems employ voltage and current measurements on the boundary of a domain to create a representation of the impedance distribution within the domain. The development of the Sandia EIT system (S-EIT) is reviewed. The construction of the projection acquisition system is discussed and two specific EIT inversion algorithms are detailed. The first reconstruction algorithm employs boundary element methods, and the second utilizes finite elements. The benefits and limitations of EIT systems are also discussed. Preliminary results are provided.
A flexible, modular manufacturing process for integrating micromechanical and microelectronic devices has been developed. This process embeds the micromechanical devices in an anisotropically etched trench below the surface of the wafer. Prior to microelectronic device fabrication, this trench is refilled with oxide, chemical-mechanically polished, and sealed with a nitride cap in order to embed the micromechanical devices below the surface of the planarized wafer. The feasibility of this technique in a manufacturing environment has been demonstrated by combining a variety of embedded micromechanical structures with a 2 μm CMOS process on 6 inch wafers. A yield of 78% has been achieved on the first devices manufactured using this technique.
New characterization and computational techniques have been developed to evaluate and simulate binder burnout from pressed powder compacts. Using engineering data and a control volume finite element method (CVFEM) thermal model, a nominally one dimensional (1-D) furnace has been designed to test, refine, and validate computer models that stimulate binder burnout assuming a 1-D thermal gradient across the ceramic body during heating. Experimentally, 1-D radial heat flow was achieved using a rod-shaped heater that directly heats the inside surface of a stack of ceramic annuli surrounded by thermal insulation. The computational modeling effort focused on producing a macroscopic model for binder burnout based on continuum approaches to heat and mass conservation for porous media. Two increasingly complex models have been developed that predict the temperature and mass of a porous powder compact as a function of time during binder burnout. The more complex model also predicts the pressure within a powder compact during binder burnout. Model predictions are in reasonably good agreement with experimental data on binder burnout from a 57-65% relative density pressed powder compact of a 94 wt% alumina body containing approx. 3 wt% binder. In conjunction with the detailed experimental data from the prototype binder burnout furnace, the models have also proven useful for conducting parametric studies to elucidate critical material property data required to support model development.
The pressure-compaction response of a spray-dried, 94% alumina powder containing several percent of a polymeric binder was investigated as a function of die diameter and compact aspect ratio. The results show that the die fill density decreases markedly with decreasing die diameter and aspect ratio, while the final green density (at 120 MPa) decreases only slightly under the same conditions. These results suggest that the ratio of the initial compact dimensions to the size of the granules may be much more important than previously considered.
This paper describes an algorithm for determining the optimal placement of a robotic manipulator within a workcell for minimum time coordinated motion. The algorithm uses a simple principle of coordinated motion to estimate the time of a joint interpolated motion. Specifically, the coordinated motion profile is limited by the slowest axis. Two and six degrees of freedom examples are presented. In experimental tests on a FANUC S-800 arm, the optimal placement of the robot can improve the cycle time of a robotic operation by as much as 25%. In high volume processes where the robot motion is currently the limiting factor, this increased throughput can result in substantial cost savings.
The emergence of several rapid prototyping & manufacturing (RP&M) technologies is having a dramatic impact on investment casting. While the most successful of the rapid prototyping technologies are almost a decade old, relatively recent process advances in their application have produced some remarkable success in utilizing their products as patterns for investment castings. Sandia National Laboratories has been developing highly coupled experimental and computational capabilities to examine the investment casting process with the intention of reducing the amount of time required to manufacture castings, and to increase the quality of the finished product. This presentation will begin with process aspects of RP&M pattern production and handling, shell fabrication, burnout, and casting. The emphasis will be on how the use of Stereolithography (SL) or Selective Laser Sintered (SLS) patterns differs from more traditional wax pattern processes. Aspects of computational simulation to couple design, thermal analysis, and mold filling will be discussed. Integration of these topics is probably the greatest challenge to the use of concurrent engineering principles with investment casting. Sandi has conducted several experiments aimed at calibrating computer codes and providing data for input into these simulations. Studied involving materials as diverse as stainless steel and gold have been conducted to determine liquid metal behavior in molds via real time radiography. The application of these experiments to predictive simulations will be described.
Nanosecond Pulsed Power provides the unique capability to deliver high energy and high power at low cost and high efficiency. One important application of this technology is to the generation of intense, high-energy laboratory X-ray sources using magnetically driven implosions. Saturn generates approx.500 kilojoules of x-rays using this process. This paper presents a detailed design concept for a approx.15 MJ laboratory X-ray source and discusses the resultant capabilities for high energy density physics studies.
A novel technique has been used to test the relative low cycle thermal fatigue resistance of different grades of US and Russian beryllium, which is proposed as plasma facing armor for fusion reactor first wall, limiter, and divertor components. A 30 kW electron beam test system was used to sweep the beam spot along one direction at 1 Hz. An in-vacuo fiber optic borescope was used to visually inspect the beryllium surfaces for crack initiation. Good agreement was found between the measured depth of cracks and a 2-D elastic-plastic finite element stress analysis.
The purpose of hazardous and radioactive materials packaging is to enable these materials to be transported without posing a threat to the health or property of the general public. To achieve this aim, regulations in the United States have been written establishing general design requirements for such packagings. While no regulations have been written specifically for mixed waste packaging, regulations for the constituents of mixed wastes, i.e., hazardous and radioactive substances, have been codified by the US Department of Transportation (DOT, 49 CFR 173) and the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC, 10 CFR 71). The design requirements for both hazardous [49 CFR 173.24 (e)(1)] and radioactive [49 CFR 173.412 (g)] materials packaging specify packaging compatibility, i.e., that the materials of the packaging @d any contents be chemically compatible with each other. Furthermore, Type A [49 CFR 173.412 (g)] and Type B (10 CFR 71.43) packaging design requirements stipulate that there be no significant chemical, galvanic, or other reaction between the materials and contents of the package. Based on these requirements, a Chemical Compatibility Testing Program was developed in the Transportation Systems Department at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL). The program attempts to assure any regulatory body that the issue of packaging material compatibility towards hazardous and radioactive materials has been addressed. This program has been described in considerable detail in an internal SNL document, the Chemical Compatibility Test Plan & Procedure Report (Nigrey 1993).
Sulfuric acid hydrogen peroxide mixtures (SPM) are commonly used in the semiconductor industry to remove organic contaminants from wafer surfaces. This viscous solution is very difficult to rinse off water surfaces. Various rinsing conditions were tested and the resulting residual acid left on the water surface was measured. Particle growth resulting from incomplete rinse is correlated with the amount of sulfur on the wafer surface measured by Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOF-SIMS). The amount of sulfur on the wafer structure after the rinse step is strongly affected by the wafer film type and contact angle prior to the SPM clean.
Intercalation anodes of graphite or disordered carbon in rechargeable Li-ion batteries (based on aprotic organic solvents) develop a passivating film during the first intercalation of Li{sup +}. The formation of this film reduces the cycling efficiency and results in excessive consumption of Li{sup +}. The exact nature of this film is not well defined, although there are many similarities in properties to the films that form on Li anodes under similar cycling conditions. In this study we report on characterization studies of films formed during galvanostatic cycling of disordered carbons derived from polymethylacryolintrile (PMAN) in a 1M LiPF{sub 6} solution in ethylene carbonateldimethyl carbonate solution (1:1 by vol.). Complementary tests were also conducted with glass carbon, where intercalation cannot occur. Complex-impedance spectroscopy was the primary measurement technique, supplemented by cyclic voltammetry.
This paper demonstrates a methodology for predicting the service lifetime of wind turbine blades using the high-cycle fatigue data base for typical U.S. blade materials developed by Mandell, et al. (1995). The first step in the analysis is to normalize the data base (composed primarily of data obtained from specialized, relatively small coupons) with fatigue data from typical industrial laminates to obtain a Goodman Diagram that is suitable for analyzing wind turbine blades. The LIFE2 fatigue analysis code for wind turbines is then used for the fatigue analysis of a typical turbine blade with a known load spectrum. In the analysis, a linear damage model, Miner`s Rule, is used to demonstrate the prediction of the service lifetime for a typical wind turbine blade under assumed operating strain ranges and stress concentration factors. In contrast to typical European data, the asymmetry in this data base predicts failures under typical loads to be compressive.
We have investigated whether an in-situ hydrogen or ammonia rf-plasma treatment prior to a PECVD-nitride deposition would promote bulk defect passivation independently of surface effects. We also studied whether the predeposition of a thin silicon-nitride protective layer vbefore performing the plasma treatment would serve to minimize surface damage. We found that for the limited set of deposition conditions in of cells processed using the used five different deposition strategies and compared the resulting cell performance with that investigated so far, the direct deposition of PECVD-nitride produces the best cells on String Ribbon silicon wafers to date, with efficiencies up to 14.5%. Hydrogen and ammonia plasma pretreatments without a protective nitride layer resulted in better bulk passivation, but damaged surfaces. Pretreatments after deposition of the protective layer produced the best surface passivation, but were not effective in passivating the bulk.
Researchers at Plasma Processes Inc. have produced a Functional Gradient Material (FGM) through advanced vacuum plasma spray processing for high heat flux applications. Outlined in this paper are the manufacturing methods used to develop a four component functional gradient material of copper, tungsten, boron, and boron nitride. The FGM was formed with continuous gradients and integral cooling channels eliminating bondlines and providing direct heat transfer from the high temperature exposed surface to a cooling medium. Metallurgical and x-ray diffraction analyses of the materials formed through innovative VPS (vacuum plasma spray) processing are also presented. Applications for this functional gradient structural material range from fusion reactor plasma facing components to missile nose cones to boilers.
This paper investigates the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to identify damage in mechanical systems. Two probabilistic neural networks (PNNs) are developed and used to judge whether or not damage has occurred in a specific mechanical system, based on experimental measurements. The first PNN is a classical type that casts Bayesian decision analysis into an ANN framework, it uses exemplars measured from the undamaged and damaged system to establish whether system response measurements of unknown origin come from the former class (undamaged) or the latter class (damaged). The second PNN establishes the character of the undamaged system in terms of a kernel density estimator of measures of system response; when presented with system response measures of unknown origin, it makes a probabilistic judgment whether or not the data come from the undamaged population. The physical system used to carry out the experiments is an aerospace system component, and the environment used to excite the system is a stationary random vibration. The results of damage identification experiments are presented along with conclusions rating the effectiveness of the approaches.
We present a software environment integrating analysis and test based models to support optimal modal test design through a Virtual Environment for Test Optimization (VETO). The VETO assists analysis and test engineers in maximizing the value of each modal test. It is particularly advantageous for structural dynamics model reconciliation applications. The VETO enables an engineer to interact with a finite element model of a test object to optimally place sensors and exciters and to investigate the selection of-data acquisition parameters needed to conduct a complete modal survey. Additionally, the user can evaluate the use of different types of instrumentation such as filters, amplifiers and transducers for which models are available in the VETO. The dynamic response of most of the virtual instruments (including the device under test) are modeled in the state space domain. Design of modal excitation levels and appropriate test instrumentation are facilitated by the VETO`s ability to simulate such features as unmeasured external inputs, A/D quantization effects, and electronic noise. Measures of the quality of the experimental design, including the Modal Assurance Criterion, and the Normal Mode indicator Function are available. The VETO also integrates tools such as Effective Independence and minamac to assist in selection of optimal sensor locations. The software is designed about three distinct modules: (1) a main controller and GUI written in C++, (2) a visualization model, taken from FEAVR, running under AVS, and (3) a state space model and time integration module, built in SIMULINK. These modules are designed to run as separate processes on interconnected machines. MATLAB`s external interface library is used to provide transparent, bidirectional communication between the controlling program and the computational engine where all the time integration is performed.
The experimental data on sorption and solubility of hydrogen isotopes in graphite in a wide ranges of temperature and pressure are reviewed. The Langmuir type adsorption is proposed for the hydrogen -- graphites interaction with taking into account dangling sp{sup 2}{minus}bonds relaxation. Three kinds of traps are proposed: Carbon interstitial loops with the adsorption enthalpy of {minus}4.4 eV/H{sub 2} (Traps l); carbon network edge atoms with the adsorption enthalpy of {minus}2.3 eV/H{sub 2} (Traps 2): Basal planes adsorption sites with enthalpy of +2.43 eV/H{sub 2} (Traps 3). The sorption capacity of every kind of graphite could be described with its own unique set of traps. The number of potential sites for the ``true solubility`` (Traps 3) we assume as 1E+6 appm, or HC=l, but endothermic character of this solubility leads to negligible amount of inventory in comparison with Traps 1 and Traps 2. The irradiation with neutrons or carbon atoms increases the number of Traps 1 and Traps 2. At damage level of {approximately}1 dpa under room temperature irradiation the number of these traps was increased up to 1500 and 5000 appm respectively. Traps 1 and Traps 2 are stable under high temperature annealing.
Last year the USNRC initiated a program at Sandia National Laboratories to determine the potential impact of smoke on advanced safety-related digitial instrumentation. In recognition of the fact that the reliability of safety-related equipment during or shortly after a fire in a nuclear power plant is more risk significant than long-term effects, we are concentrating on short-term failures. We exposed a multiplexer module board to three different types of smoke to determine whether the smoke would affect its operation. The operation of the multiplexer board was halted by one out of the three smoke exposures. In coordination with Oak Ridge National Laboratory, an experimental digital safety system was also smoke tested. The series of tests showed that smoke can cause potentially serious failures of a safety system. Most of these failures were intermittent and showed that smoke can temporarily interrupt communication between digital systems.
Direct observations of atomic motion with the field ion microscope (FIM) are providing detailed information on the mechanisms and energetics by which small clusters migrate across metal surfaces. An important result to emerge from these studies is that the activation energies of surface diffusion for small clusters on fcc(100) surfaces are strongly correlated with their shape. For Rh clusters on Rh(100) this correlation leads to an oscillatory behavior in the cluster mobility as a function of cluster size. For Pt on Rh(100) the activation energy is constant as clusters increase in size from three to five atoms and is also correlated with shape. The atomic-level mechanism involved in cluster diffusion on fcc(100) surfaces is inferred from a comparison of the measured activation energies to previous theoretical calculations.