Karathanassis, Ioannis K.; Hwang, Joonsik; Koukouvinis, Phoevos; Pickett, Lyle M.
A high-speed flow visualisation set-up comprising of combined diffuse backlight illumination (DBI) and schlieren imaging has been developed to illustrate the highly transient, two-phase flow arising in a real-size optical fuel injector. The different illumination nature of the two techniques, diffuse and parallel light respectively, allows for the capturing of refractive-index gradients due to the presence of both interfaces and density gradients within the orifice. Hence, the onset of cavitation and secondary-flow motion within the sac and injector hole can be concurrently visualised. Experiments were conducted utilising a diesel injector fitted with a single-hole transparent tip (ECN spray D) at injection pressures of 700–900 bar and ambient pressures in the range of 1–20 bar. High-speed DBI images obtained at 100,000 fps revealed that the orifice, due to its tapered layout, is mildly cavitating with relatively constant cavity sheets arising mainly in regions of manufacturing imperfections. Nevertheless, schlieren images obtained at the same frame rate demonstrated that a multitude of vortices with short lifetimes arise at different scales in the sac and nozzle regions during the entire duration of the injection cycle but the vortices do not necessarily result in phase change. The magnitude and exact location of coherent vortical structures have a measurable influence on the dynamics of the spray emerging downstream the injector outlet, leading to distinct differences in the variation of its cone angle depending on the injection and ambient pressures examined.
Mitigating particulate matter (PM) emissions while simultaneously controlling nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon emissions is critical for both gasoline and diesel engines. The problem is especially critical during cold-start cycles where aftertreatment devices are less effective. Understanding how liquid sprays and films form PM and designing to change the outcome requires advanced combustion concepts developed through joint experimental and computational efforts. However, existing spray and soot computational models are oversimplified and non-physical, and are therefore unable to reliably capture quantitative or even qualitative trends over a wide range of engine operating conditions. This task involves the development and application of advanced optical diagnostics and high-pressure gas and particle sampling/analysis in unique high-temperature, high-pressure vessels to investigate spray dynamics and soot formation with the objective of providing fundamental understanding about soot processes under relevant engine conditions to aid the development of improved soot models for commercial CFD codes
We propose a novel approach to evaluate the relaxation time of vapor bubble growth in the context of the flash boiling of a superheated liquid. In alternative to the empirical correlation derived from superheated water experiments almost fifty years ago, the new model describes the thermally-dominated growth of vapor bubbles in terms that are dependent on the local Jakob number (the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat during phase change) and the number density of vapor bubbles. The model is tested by plugging the resulting relaxation time into the Homogenous Relaxation Model (HRM). Flash-boiling simulations carried out with HRM are compared with n-pentane (C5H12) injection and boil-off experiments conducted with a real-size, axial-hole, transparent gasoline injector discharging into a constant-pressure vessel. The long-distance microscopy images from the experiments, processed to derive the projected liquid volume (PLV) of the spray, provide a unique set of time-resolved validation data for direct fuel injection simulations. At conditions ranging from flaring to mild and minimal flash boiling, we show that switching to the new relaxation time improves the agreement with the measured PLV profiles with respect to the standard empirical model. Particularly at flaring conditions, the predicted increase in gas cooling caused by rapid vapor production is shown to be more consistent with the observed boil-off.
Koukouvinis, Phoevos; Vidal-Roncero, Alvaro; Rodriguez, Carlos; Pickett, Lyle M.
The present work investigates the complex phenomena associated with pressure/high temperature dodecane injection for the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray-A case, employing more elaborate thermodynamic closures, to avoid well known deficiencies concerning density and speed of sound prediction using traditional cubic models. A tabulated thermodynamic approach is proposed here, based on log10(p)-T tables, providing very high accuracy across a large range of pressures, spanning from 0 to 2500 bar, with only a small number of interpolation points. The tabulation approach is directly extensible to any thermodynamic model, existing or to be developed in the future. Here NIST REFPROP properties are used, combined with PC-SAFT Vapor-Liquid-Equilibrium to identify the liquid in mixtures penetration, hence avoiding the use of an arbitrary threshold for mass fraction. Identified liquid and vapour penetration are compared against experimental data from the ECN database showing a good agreement, within approximately 3–8% for axial penetration of liquid, 2% for vapor axial penetration and within experimental uncertainty for radial distribution of mass fraction. Analysis of the vortex evolution indicates that driving mechanisms behind the jet break-up are vortex tilting/stretching, then baroclinic torque, leading to Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities, closely followed by vortex dilation and finally viscous effects.
The flow and cavitation behavior inside fuel injectors is known to affect spray development, mixing and combustion characteristics. While diesel fuel injectors with converging and hydro-eroded holes are generally known to limit cavitation and feature higher discharge coefficients during the steady period of injection, less is known about the flow during transient periods corresponding to needle opening and closing. Multiple injection strategies involve short injections, multiplying these aspects and giving them a growing importance as part of the fuel delivery process. In this study, single-hole transparent nozzles were manufactured with the same hole inlet radius and diameter as the Engine Combustion Network Spray D nozzle, mounted to a modified version of a common-rail Spray A injector body and needle. Needle opening and closing periods were visualized with stereoscopic high-speed microscopy at injection pressures relevant to modern diesel engines. Time-resolved sac pressure was extracted via elastic deformation analysis of the transparent nozzles. Sources of cavitation were observed and tracked, enabling the identification of a gas exchange process after the end of injection with ingestion of chamber gas into the sac and orifice. We observed that the gas exchange contributed widely to disrupting the start of injection and outlet flow during the subsequent injection event.
Maes, Noud; Skeen, Scott A.; Bardi, Michele; Fitzgerald, Russell P.; Malbec, Louis M.; Bruneaux, Gilles; Pickett, Lyle M.; Yasutomi, Koji; Martin, Glen
In a collaborative effort to identify key aspects of heavy-duty diesel injector behavior, the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray C and Spray D injectors were characterized in three independent research laboratories using constant volume pre-burn vessels and a heated constant-pressure vessel. This work reports on experiments with nominally identical injectors used in different optically accessible combustion chambers, where one of the injectors was designed intentionally to promote cavitation. Optical diagnostic techniques specifically targeted liquid- and vapor-phase penetration, combustion indicators, and sooting behavior over a large range of ambient temperatures—from 850 K to 1100 K. Because the large-orifice injectors employed in this work result in flame lengths that extend well beyond the optical diagnostics’ field-of-view, a novel method using a characteristic volume is proposed for quantitative comparison of soot under such conditions. Further, the viability of extrapolating these measurements downstream is considered. The results reported in this publication explain trends and unique characteristics of the two different injectors over a range of conditions and serve as calibration targets for numerical efforts within the ECN consortium and beyond. Building on agreement for experimental results from different institutions under inert conditions, apparent differences found in combustion indicators and sooting behavior are addressed and explained. Ignition delay and soot onset are correlated and the results demonstrate the sensitivity of soot formation to the major species of the ambient gas (i.e., carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen in the pre-burn ambient versus nitrogen only in the constant pressure vessel) when holding ambient oxygen volume percent constant.
Combustion issued from an eight-hole, direct-injection spray was experimentally studied in a constant-volume pre-burn combustion vessel using simultaneous high-speed diffused back-illumination extinction imaging (DBIEI) and OH∗ chemiluminescence. DBIEI has been employed to observe the liquid-phase of the spray and to quantitatively investigate the soot formation and oxidation taking place during combustion. The fuel-air mixture was ignited with a plasma induced by a single-shot Nd:YAG laser, permitting precise control of the ignition location in space and time. OH∗ chemiluminescence was used to track the high-temperature ignition and flame. The study showed that increasing the delay between the end of injection and ignition drastically reduces soot formation without necessarily compromising combustion efficiency. For long delays between the end of injection and ignition (1.9 ms) soot formation was eliminated in the main downstream charge of the fuel spray. However, poorly atomized and large droplets formed at the end of injection (dribble) eventually do form soot near the injector even when none is formed in the main charge. The quantitative soot measurements for these spray and ignition scenarios, resolved in time and space, represents a significant new achievement. Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations were performed to assess spray mixing and combustion. An analysis of the predicted fuel-air mixture in key regions, defined based upon experimental observations, was used to explain different flame propagation speeds and soot production tendencies when varying ignition timing. The mixture analysis indicates that soot production can be avoided if the flame propagates into regions where the equivalence ratio (φ) is already below 2. Reactive RANS simulations have also been performed, but with a poor match against the experiment, as the flame speed and heat-release rate are largely over estimated. This modeling weakness appears related to a very high level of turbulent viscosity predicted for the high-momentum spray in the RANS simulations, which is an important consideration for modeling ignition and flame propagation in mixtures immediately created by the spray.
Weiss, Lukas; Wensing, Michael; Hwang, Joonsik; Pickett, Lyle M.; Skeen, Scott A.
Abstract: The method for direct injection of fuel in the cylinder of an IC engines is important to high-efficiency and low-emission performance. Optical spray diagnostics plays an important role in understanding plume movement and interaction for multi-hole injectors, and providing baseline understanding used for computational optimization of fuel delivery. Traditional planar or line-of-sight diagnostics fail to capture the liquid distribution because of optical thickness concerns. This work proposes a high-speed (67 kHz) extinction imaging technique at various injector rotations coupled to computed tomography (CT) for time-resolved reconstruction of liquid volume fraction in three dimensions. The number of views selected and processing were based on synthetic (modeled) liquid volume fraction data where extinction and CT adequately reconstructed each plume. The exercise showed that for an 8-hole, symmetric-design injector (ECN Spray G), only three different views are enough to reproduce the direction of each plume, and particularly the mean plume direction. Therefore, the number of views was minimized for experiments to save expense. Measurements applying this limited-view technique confirm plume–plume variations also detected with mechanical patternation, while providing better spatial and temporal resolution than achieved previously. Uncertainties due to the limited view within pressurized spray chambers, the droplet size, and optically thick regions are discussed. Graphic abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.].
Gas ingested into the sac of a fuel injector after the injector needle valve closes is known to have crucial impacts on initial spray formation and plume growth in a following injection cycle. Yet little research has been attempted to understand the fate sac gases during pressure expansion and compression typical of an engine. This study investigated cavitation and bubble processes in the sac including the effect of chamber pressure decrease and increase consistent with an engine cycle. A single axial-hole transparent nozzle based on the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray D nozzle geometry was mounted in a vessel filled with nitrogen, and the nitrogen gas pressure was cycled after the end of injection. Interior nozzle phenomena were visualized by high-speed longdistance microscopy with a nanosecond pulsed LED back-illumination. Experimental results showed that the volume of gas in the sac after the needle closes depends upon the vessel gas pressure. Higher back pressure results in less cavitation and a smaller volume of non-condensable gas in the sac. But a pressure decrease mimicking the expansion stroke causes the gas within the sac to expand significantly, proportional to the pressure decrease, while also evacuating liquid in front of the bubble. The volume of the gas in the sac increases during the expansion cycle due both to isothermal expansion as well as desorption of inherent dissolved gas in the fuel. During the compression cycle, the volume of bubbles decreases and additional non-condensable ambient gas is ingested into the sac. As the liquid fuel is nearly incompressible, the volume of both liquid and gas essentially remains constant during compression.
Time-resolved visualization of fast processes using high-speed digital video-cameras has been widely used in most fields of scientific research for over a decade. In many applications, high-speed imaging is used not only to record the time history of a phenomenon but also to quantify it, hence requiring dependable equipment. Important aspects of two-dimensional imaging instrumentation used to qualitatively or quantitatively assess fast-moving scenes include sensitivity, linearity, as well as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Under certain circumstances, the weaknesses of commercially available high-speed cameras, i.e., sensitivity, linearity, image lag, etc., render the experiment complicated and uncertain. Our study evaluated two advanced CMOS-based, continuous-recording, high-speed cameras available at the moment of writing. Various parameters, potentially important toward accurate time-resolved measurements and photonic quantification, have been measured under controlled conditions on the bench, using scientific instrumentation. Testing procedures to measure sensitivity, linearity, SNR, shutter accuracy, and image lag are proposed and detailed. The results of the tests, comparing the two high-speed cameras under study, are also presented and discussed. Results show that, with careful implementation and understanding of their performance and limitations, these high-speed cameras are reasonable alternatives to scientific CCD cameras, while also delivering time-resolved imaging data.
The DOE project for Co-Optimization of Fuels and Engines seeks to define both fuel properties and engine hardware to create cleaner and more fuel-efficient engines. Fuel spray technologies are central to this goal as the spray injection determines the combustible mixtures formed within the engine. Sprays are known to affect bum rate and efficiency, particulate formation and emissions, as well as temperature and engine knock sites. Computational fluid dynamic models must predict complicated interaction between plumes and vaporization to be useful as a design tool for industry. Changes in fuel properties are expected to affect fuel delivery. While Co-Optima fuels may be selected for chemical criteria, such as high octane number rating, an understanding of how the physical properties affect spray performance is necessary to optimize fuel delivery. Many of the selected Co-Optima fuels have properties that are different than standard gasoline, requiring investigations for their performance. A new continuous-flow spray chamber facility has been completed, offering capability to control the pressure and temperature of the gases at engine-relevant conditions at the time of injection as well as a massive increase in data throughput. Direct-injection multi-hole gasoline sprays for different Co-Optima fuels are investigated in this chamber.
All future high-efficiency engines will have fuel directly sprayed into the engine cylinder. Engine developers agree that a major barrier to the rapid development and design of these high-efficiency, clean engines is the lack of accurate fuel spray computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models. The spray injection process largely determines the fuel-air mixture processes in the engine, which subsequently drives combustion and emissions in both direct-injection gasoline and diesel systems. More predictive spray combustion models will enable rapid design and optimization of future high-efficiency engines, providing more affordable vehicles and also saving fuel.