We conducted a study of the time and resources that would be required for Sandia National Laboratories to once again perform nuclear weapons effects experiments of the sort that it did in the past. The study is predicated on the assumptions that if underground nuclear weapons effects testing (UG/NWET) is ever resumed, (1) a brief series of tests (i.e., 2-3) would be done, and (2) all required resources other than those specific to SNL experiments would be provided by others. The questions that we sought to answer were: (1) What experiments would SNL want to do and why? (2) How much would they cost? (3) How long would they take to field? To answer these questions, we convened panels of subject matter experts first to identify five experiments representative of those that SNL has done in the past, and then to determine the costs and timelines to design, fabricate and field each of them. We found that it would cost $76M to $84M to do all five experiments, including 164 to 174 FTEs to conduct all five experiments in a single test. Planning and expenditures for some of the experiments needed to start as early as 5.5 years prior to zero-day, and some work would continue up to 2 years beyond the event. Using experienced personnel as mentors, SNL could probably field such experiments within the next five years. However, beyond that time frame, loss of personnel would place us in the position of essentially starting over.
Sandia is currently developing a lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic 95/5-2Nb (or PNZT) from chemically prepared ('chem-prep') precursor powders. Previous PNZT ceramic was fabricated from the powders prepared using a 'mixed-oxide' process. The specimens of unpoled PNZT ceramic from batch HF803 were tested under hydrostatic, uniaxial, and constant stress difference loading conditions within the temperature range of -55 to 75 C and pressures to 500 MPa. The objective of this experimental study was to obtain mechanical properties and phase relationships so that the grain-scale modeling effort can develop and test its models and codes using realistic parameters. The stress-strain behavior of 'chem-prep' PNZT under different loading paths was found to be similar to that of 'mixed-oxide' PNZT. The phase transformation from ferroelectric to antiferroelectric occurs in unpoled ceramic with abrupt increase in volumetric strain of about 0.7 % when the maximum compressive stress, regardless of loading paths, equals the hydrostatic pressure at which the transformation otherwise takes place. The stress-volumetric strain relationship of the ceramic undergoing a phase transformation was analyzed quantitatively using a linear regression analysis. The pressure (P{sub T1}{sup H}) required for the onset of phase transformation with respect to temperature is represented by the best-fit line, P{sub T1}{sup H} (MPa) = 227 + 0.76 T (C). We also confirmed that increasing shear stress lowers the mean stress and the volumetric strain required to trigger phase transformation. At the lower bound (-55 C) of the tested temperature range, the phase transformation is permanent and irreversible. However, at the upper bound (75 C), the phase transformation is completely reversible as the stress causing phase transformation is removed.
Aluminum oxide (ALOX) filled epoxy is the dielectric encapsulant in shock driven high-voltage power supplies. ALOX encapsulants display a high dielectric strength under purely electrical stress, but minimal information is available on the combined effects of high voltage and mechanical shock. We report breakdown results from applying electrical stress in the form of a unipolar high-voltage pulse of the order of 10-{micro}s duration, and our findings may establish a basis for understanding the results from proposed combined-stress experiments. A test specimen geometry giving approximately uniform fields is used to compare three ALOX encapsulant formulations, which include the new-baseline 459 epoxy resin encapsulant and a variant in which the Alcoa T-64 alumina filler is replaced with Sumitomo AA-10 alumina. None of these encapsulants show a sensitivity to ionizing radiation. We also report results from specimens with sharp-edged electrodes that cause strong, localized field enhancement as might be present near electrically-discharged mechanical fractures in an encapsulant. Under these conditions the 459-epoxy ALOX encapsulant displays approximately 40% lower dielectric strength than the older Z-cured Epon 828 formulation. An investigation of several processing variables did not reveal an explanation for this reduced performance. The 459-epoxy encapsulant appears to suffer electrical breakdown if the peak field anywhere reaches a critical level. The stress-strain characteristics of Z-cured ALOX encapsulant are measured under high triaxial pressure and we find that this stress causes permanent deformation and a network of microscopic fractures. Recommendations are made for future experimental work.
Chemically prepared Pb(Zr0.95Ti0.05)O3 (PZT 95/5) ceramics were fabricated with a range of different porosity levels, while grain size was held constant, by systematic additions of added organic pore former (Avicel). Use of Avicel in amounts ranging from 0 to 4.0 wt% resulted in fired ceramic densities that ranged from 97.3% to 82.3%. Hydrostatic-pressure-induced ferroelectric (FE) to antiferroelectric (AFE) phase transformations were substantially more diffuse and occurred at lower hydrostatic pressures with increasing porosity. An ∼12 MPa decrease in hydrostatic transformation pressure per volume percent added porosity was observed. The decrease in transformation pressure with decreasing density was quantitatively consistent with the calculated macroscopic stress required to achieve a specific volumetric macrostrain (0.40%). This strain was equivalent to experimentally measured macrostrain for FE-to-AFE transformation. The macroscopic stress levels were calculated using measured bulk modulus values that decreased from 84 to 46 GPa as density decreased from 97.3% to 82.3%. Good agreement between calculated and measured values of FE-to-AFE transformation stress was obtained for ceramics fired at 1275° and 1345°C.
Software has been developed and extended to allow finite element (FE) modeling of ceramic powder compaction using a cap-plasticity constitutive model. The underlying, general-purpose FE software can be used to model even the most complex three-dimensional (3D) geometries envisioned. Additionally, specialized software has been developed within this framework to address a general subclass of axisymmetric compacts that are common in industry. The expertise required to build the input deck, run the FE code, and post-process the results for this subclass of compacts is embedded within the specialized software. The user simply responds to a series of prompts, evaluates the quality of the FE mesh that is generated, and analyzes the graphical results that are produced. The specialized software allows users with little or no FE expertise to benefit from the tremendous power and insight that FE analysis can bring to the design cycle. The more general underlying software provides complete flexibility to model more complicated geometries and processes of interest to ceramic component manufacturers but requires significantly more user interaction and expertise.
In the manufacture of ceramic components, near-net-shape parts are commonly formed by uniaxially pressing granulated powders in rigid dies. Density gradients that are introduced into a powder compact during press-forming often increase the cost of manufacturing, and can degrade the performance and reliability of the finished part. Finite element method (FEM) modeling can be used to predict powder compaction response, and can provide insight into the causes of density gradients in green powder compacts; however, accurate numerical simulations require accurate material properties and realistic constitutive laws. To support an effort to implement an advanced cap plasticity model within the finite element framework to realistically simulate powder compaction, the authors have undertaken a project to directly measure as many of the requisite powder properties for modeling as possible. A soil mechanics approach has been refined and used to measure the pressure dependent properties of ceramic powders up to 68.9 MPa (10,000 psi). Due to the large strains associated with compacting low bulk density ceramic powders, a two-stage process was developed to accurately determine the pressure-density relationship of a ceramic powder in hydrostatic compression, and the properties of that same powder compact under deviatoric loading at the same specific pressures. Using this approach, the seven parameters that are required for application of a modified Drucker-Prager cap plasticity model were determined directly. The details of the experimental techniques used to obtain the modeling parameters and the results for two different granulated alumina powders are presented.
The authors used micro-Raman spectroscopy to monitor the ferroelectric (FE) to antiferroelectric (AFE) phase transition in PZT ceramic bars during the application of uniaxial stress. They designed and constructed a simple loading device, which can apply sufficient uniaxial force to transform reasonably large ceramic bars while being small enough to fit on the mechanical stage of the microscope used for Raman analysis. Raman spectra of individual grains in ceramic PZT bars were obtained as the stress on the bar was increased in increments. At the same time gauges attached to the PZT bar recorded axial and lateral strains induced by the applied stress. The Raman spectra were used to calculate an FE coordinate, which is related to the fraction of FE phase present. The authors present data showing changes in the FE coordinates of individual PZT grains and correlate these changes to stress-strain data, which plot the macroscopic evolution of the FE-to-AFE transformation. Their data indicates that the FE-to-AFE transformation does not occur simultaneously for all PZT grains but that grains react individually to local conditions.
A substantial decrease in hydrostatic ferroelectric (FE) to antiferroelectric (AFE) transformation pressure was measured for Pb(Zr{sub 0.949}Ti{sub 0.051}){sub 0.989}Nb{sub 0.0182}O{sub 3} ceramics with decreasing grain size. The 150 MPa decrease in hydrostatic FE to AFE transformation pressure over the grain size range of 8.5 {micro}m to 0.7{micro}m was shown to be consistent with enhanced internal stress with decreasing grain size. Further, the Curie Point decreased and the dielectric constant measured at 25 C increased with decreasing grain size. All three properties: dielectric constant magnitude, Curie point shift and FE to AFE phase transformation pressure were shown to be semi-quantitatively consistent with internal stress differences on the order of 100 MPa. Calculations of Curie point shifts from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, using internal stress levels derived from the hydrostatic depoling characteristics, were consistent with measured values.
Chemically prepared Pb(Zr{sub 0.951}Ti{sub 0.949}){sub 0.982}Nb{sub 0.018}O{sub 3} ceramics were fabricated that were greater than 95% dense for sintering temperatures as low as 925 C. Achieving high density at low firing temperatures permitted isolation of the effects of grain size, from those due to porosity, on both dielectric and pressure induced transformation properties. Specifically, two samples of similar high density, but with grain sizes of 0.7 {micro}m and 8.5 {micro}m, respectively, were characterized. The hydrostatic ferroelectric (FE) to antiferroelectric (AFE) transformation pressure was substantially less (150 MPa) for the lower grain size material than for the larger grain size material. In addition, the dielectric constant increased and the Curie temperature decreased for the sample with lower grain size. All three properties: dielectric constant magnitude, Curie point shift, and FE to AFE phase transformation pressure were shown to be semi-quantitatively consistent with internal stress levels on the order of 100 MPa.
We conducted hydrostatic and constant-stress-difference (CSD) experiments at room temperature on two different sintered batches of poled, niobium-doped lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic (PZT 95/5-2Nb). The objective of this test plan was to quantify the effects of nonhydrostatic stress on the electromechanical behavior of the ceramic during the ferroelectric, rhombohedral {yields} antiferroelectric, orthorhombic (FE {yields} AFE) phase transformation. We also performed a series of hydrostatic and triaxial compression experiments in which a 1000 V potential was applied to poled specimens to evaluate any effect of a sustained bias on the transformation. As we predicted from earlier tests on unpoled PZT 95/5-2Nb, increasing the stress difference up to 200 MPa (corresponding to a maximum resolved shear stress of 100 MPa) decreases the mean stress and confining pressure at which the transformation occurs by 25--33%, for both biased and unbiased conditions. This same stress difference also retards the rate of transformation at constant pressurization rate, resulting in reductions of up to an order of magnitude in the rate of charge release and peak voltage attained in our tests. This shear stress-voltage effect offers a plausible, though qualitative explanation for certain systematic failures that have occurred in neutron generator power supplies when seemingly minor design changes have been made. Transformation strains in poled ceramic are anisotropic (differing by up to 33%) in hydrostatic compression, and even more anisotropic under non-hydrostatic stress states. Application of a 1000 V bias appears to slightly increase (by {le}2%) the transformation pressure for poled ceramic, but evidence for this conclusion is weak.
Hydrostatic and constant-stress-difference (CSD) experiments were conducted at RT on 3 different sintering runs of unpoled, Nb-doped lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic (PZT 95/5-2Nb) in order to quantify influence of shear stress on displacive, martensitic-like, first-order, rhombohedral {r_arrow} orthorhombic phase transformation. In hydrostatic compression at RT, the transformation began at about 260 MPa, and was usually incompletely reversed upon return to ambient. Strains associated with the transformation were isotropic, both on first and subsequent hydrostatic cycles. Results for CSD tests were quite different. First, the confining pressure and mean stress at which the transition begins decreased linearly with increasing stress difference. Second, the rate of transformation decreased with increasing shear stress and the accompanying purely elastic shear strain. This contrasts with the typical observation that shear stresses increase reaction and transformation kinetics. Third, strain was not isotropic during the transformation: axial strains were greater and lateral strains smaller than for the hydrostatic case, though volumetric strain behavior was comparable for the two types of tests. However, this effect does not appear to be an example of true transformational plasticity: no additional unexpected strains accumulated during subsequent cycles through transition under nonhydrostatic loading. If subsequent hydrostatic cycles were performed on samples previously run under CSD conditions, strain anisotropy was again observed, indicating that the earlier superimposed shear stress produced a permanent mechanical anisotropy in the material. The mechanical anisotropy probably results from a ``one-time`` crystallographic preferred orientation that developed during the transformation under shear stress. Finally, in a few specimens from one particular sintering run, sporadic evidence for a ``shape memory effect`` was observed.
The mechanical behavior of crushed natural rock salt is of concern to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Project because excavated salt is a candidate material for use as backfill around the waste packages and in storage rooms, shafts and other underground openings. To complement existing studies on the compaction behavior of dry and damp (i.e., unsaturated) crushed rock salt under hydrostatic compression, we initiated an extensive experimental program to evaluate (1) the effect of brine-saturation on the consolidation rates and terminal densities of crushed salt subjected to hydrostatic compression, and (2) the influence of small deviatoric stresses on the consolidation rate damp crushed rock salt. This investigation is incomplete, and laboratory facilities are limited, therefore, in this report we review available results, in order to make available preliminary estimates of the effects of brine-saturation and shear stress on consolidation. Experiments with brine were carried out under nominally drained conditions. Experiments completed to data include five hydrostatic compaction tests on brine-saturated samples, run at pressures ranging from 1.72 to 10.34 MPa, and two prototype shear consolidation experiments run at a mean stress of 3.45 MPa and a stress difference of 0.69 MPa. Both sets of experiments were run at 20{plus minus}0.5 {degrees}C. Although the experiments on brine-saturated crushed rock salt exhibit several discrepancies, we can draw the following conclusions. (1) Though effects associated with brine-saturated apparently have a retarding effect on consolidation, rates are reduced by less than an order of magnitude when compared with unsaturated specimens. Despite saturation, high fractional densities (>0.95) are attainable even on laboratory time scales using pressures well below lithostatic at the WIPP ({approx} 15 MPa). 23 refs., 26 figs., 5 tabs.