Sandia National Laboratories is investigating oil mixing in underground storage caverns as part of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) program. Oil mixing in caverns can be classified as internally - driven or externally driven. In externally - driven mixing, which is addressed in this report, processes external to the cavern and the underground environment such as the introduction and removal of fluids can cause mixing of the oil. Miscible and immiscible mixing processes are discussed. As part of this investigation, research into the fundamental mixing processes for layered caverns has been conducted by Professor H.J.S. Fernando and associates at Arizona State University (ASU) (2006 - 2009) and at the University of Notre Dame (2010 - 2012) for miscible mixing from jets. Additional research for immiscible mixing at an interface due to fluid injection was conducted at the University of Massachusetts - Dartmouth. The results of the research conducted at Sandia National Laboratories and at ASU/Notre Dame and UMass - Dartmouth are summarized in this report.
The potential to treat non-traditional water sources using power plant waste heat in conjunction with membrane distillation is assessed. Researchers and power plant designers continue to search for ways to use that waste heat from Rankine cycle power plants to recover water thereby reducing water net water consumption. Unfortunately, waste heat from a power plant is of poor quality. Membrane distillation (MD) systems may be a technology that can use the low temperature waste heat (<100 F) to treat water. By their nature, they operate at low temperature and usually low pressure. This study investigates the use of MD to recover water from typical power plants. It looks at recovery from three heat producing locations (boiler blow down, steam diverted from bleed streams, and the cooling water system) within a power plant, providing process sketches, heat and material balances and equipment sizing for recovery schemes using MD for each of these locations. It also provides insight into life cycle cost tradeoffs between power production and incremental capital costs.
During cavern leaching in the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR), injected raw water mixes with resident brine and eventually interacts with the cavern salt walls. This report provides a record of data acquired during a series of experiments designed to measure the leaching rate of salt walls in a labscale simulated cavern, as well as discussion of the data. These results should be of value to validate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models used to simulate leaching applications. Three experiments were run in the transparent 89-cm (35-inch) ID diameter vessel previously used for several related projects. Diagnostics included tracking the salt wall dissolution rate using ultrasonics, an underwater camera to view pre-installed markers, and pre- and post-test weighing and measuring salt blocks that comprise the walls. In addition, profiles of the local brine/water conductivity and temperature were acquired at three locations by traversing conductivity probes to map out the mixing of injected raw water with the surrounding brine. The data are generally as expected, with stronger dissolution when the salt walls were exposed to water with lower salt saturation, and overall reasonable wall shape profiles. However, there are significant block-to-block variations, even between neighboring salt blocks, so the averaged data are considered more useful for model validation. The remedial leach tests clearly showed that less mixing and longer exposure time to unsaturated water led to higher levels of salt wall dissolution. The data for all three tests showed a dividing line between upper and lower regions, roughly above and below the fresh water injection point, with higher salt wall dissolution in all cases, and stronger (for remedial leach cases) or weaker (for standard leach configuration) concentration gradients above the dividing line.
Biofouling, the unwanted growth of biofilms on a surface, of water-treatment membranes negatively impacts in desalination and water treatment. With biofouling there is a decrease in permeate production, degradation of permeate water quality, and an increase in energy expenditure due to increased cross-flow pressure needed. To date, a universal successful and cost-effect method for controlling biofouling has not been implemented. The overall goal of the work described in this report was to use high-performance computing to direct polymer, material, and biological research to create the next generation of water-treatment membranes. Both physical (micromixers - UV-curable epoxy traces printed on the surface of a water-treatment membrane that promote chaotic mixing) and chemical (quaternary ammonium groups) modifications of the membranes for the purpose of increasing resistance to biofouling were evaluated. Creation of low-cost, efficient water-treatment membranes helps assure the availability of fresh water for human use, a growing need in both the U. S. and the world.
This report summarizes the experimental and modeling effort undertaken to understand solute mixing in a water distribution network conducted during the last year of a 3-year project. The experimental effort involves measurement of extent of mixing within different configurations of pipe networks, measurement of dynamic mixing in a single mixing tank, and measurement of dynamic solute mixing in a combined network-tank configuration. High resolution analysis of turbulence mixing is carried out via high speed photography as well as 3D finite-volume based Large Eddy Simulation turbulence models. Macroscopic mixing rules based on flow momentum balance are also explored, and in some cases, implemented in EPANET. A new version EPANET code was developed to yield better mixing predictions. The impact of a storage tank on pipe mixing in a combined pipe-tank network during diurnal fill-and-drain cycles is assessed. Preliminary comparison between dynamic pilot data and EPANET-BAM is also reported.
Computational fluid dynamics simulations for dispersal of explosive vapors in interior spaces have been performed including details of typical ventilation systems. The interior spaces investigated include an office area, a single-family house, and a warehouse store. Explosive vapor sources are defined in the various interior spaces, and contours of the vapor concentration in the interior spaces relative to the source concentration are presented for relative concentrations down to 10-5. Training protocols for detection of explosive vapors in interior spaces should include an awareness of the time to equilibrium evident in these simulations as well as the significance of ventilation zones.3
The heat output of the radioactive waste proposed to be emplaced at Yucca Mountain will strongly affect the thermal-hydrological (TH) conditions in and near the geologic repository for thousands of years. Recent computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis has demonstrated that the emplacement tunnels (drifts) will act as important conduits for gas flows driven by natural convection. As a result, vapor generated from boiling/evaporation of formation water near elevated-temperature sections of the drifts may effectively be transported to cooler end sections (where no waste is emplaced), would condense there, and subsequently drain into underlying rock units. To study these processes, we have developed a new simulation method that couples existing tools for simulating TH conditions in the fractured formation with modules that approximate natural convection in heated emplacement drifts. The new method is applied to evaluate the future TH conditions at Yucca Mountain in a three-dimensional model domain comprising a representative emplacement drift and the surrounding fractured rock.
Laboratory-scale experiments simulating the injection of fresh water into brine in a Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) cavern were performed at Sandia National Laboratories for various conditions of injection rate and small and large injection tube diameters. The computational fluid dynamic (CFD) code FLUENT was used to simulate these experiments to evaluate the predictive capability of FLUENT for brine-water mixing in an SPR cavern. The data-model comparisons show that FLUENT simulations predict the mixing plume depth reasonably well. Predictions of the near-wall brine concentrations compare very well with the experimental data. The simulated time for the mixing plume to reach the vessel wall was underpredicted for the small injection tubes but reasonable for the large injection tubes. The difference in the time to reach the wall is probably due to the three-dimensional nature of the mixing plume as it spreads out at the air-brine or oil-brine interface. The depth of the mixing plume as it spreads out along the interface was within a factor of 2 of the experimental data. The FLUENT simulation results predict the plume mixing accurately, especially the water concentration when the mixing plume reaches the wall. This parameter value is the most significant feature of the mixing process because it will determine the amount of enhanced leaching at the oil-brine interface.
Military test and training ranges operate with live-fire engagements to provide realism important to the maintenance of key tactical skills. Ordnance detonations during these operations typically produce minute residues of parent explosive chemical compounds. Occasional low-order detonations also disperse solid-phase energetic material onto the surface soil. These detonation remnants are implicated in chemical contamination impacts to groundwater on a limited set of ranges where environmental characterization projects have occurred. Key questions arise regarding how these residues and the environmental conditions (e.g., weather and geostratigraphy) contribute to groundwater pollution. This final report documents the results of experimental and simulation model development for evaluating mass transfer processes from solid-phase energetics to soil-pore water.
Military test and training ranges operate with live fire engagements to provide realism important to the maintenance of key tactical skills. Ordnance detonations during these operations typically produce minute residues of parent explosive chemical compounds. Occasional low order detonations also disperse solid phase energetic material onto the surface soil. These detonation remnants are implicated in chemical contamination impacts to groundwater on a limited set of ranges where environmental characterization projects have occurred. Key questions arise regarding how these residues and the environmental conditions (e.g., weather and geostratigraphy) contribute to groundwater pollution impacts. This report documents interim results of a mass transfer model evaluating mass transfer processes from solid phase energetics to soil pore water based on experimental work obtained earlier in this project. This mass transfer numerical model has been incorporated into the porous media simulation code T2TNT. Next year, the energetic material mass transfer model will be developed further using additional experimental data.
Buried landmines are often detected through their chemical signature in the thin air layer, or boundary layer, right above the soil surface by sensors or animals. Environmental processes play a significant role in the available chemical signature. Due to the shallow burial depth of landmines, the weather also influences the release of chemicals from the landmine, transport through the soil to the surface, and degradation processes in the soil. The effect of weather on the landmine chemical signature from a PMN landmine was evaluated with the T2TNT code for three different climates: Kabul, Afghanistan, Ft. Leonard Wood, Missouri, USA, and Napacala, Mozambique. Results for TNT gas-phase and solid-phase concentrations are presented as a function of time of the year.
Yucca Mountain has been designated as the nation's high-level radioactive waste repository, and the U.S. Department of Energy has been approved to apply to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a license to construct a repository. The temperature and humidity inside the emplacement drift will affect the degradation rate of the waste packages and waste forms as well as the quantity of water available to transport dissolved radionuclides out of the waste canister. Thermal radiation and turbulent natural convection are the main modes of heat transfer inside the drift. This paper presents the result of three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulations of a segment of emplacement drift. The model contained the three main types of waste packages and was run at the time that the peak waste package temperatures are expected. Results show that thermal radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer inside the drift. Natural convection affects the variation in surface temperature on the hot waste packages and can account for a large fraction of the heat transfer for the colder waste packages. The paper also presents the sensitivity of model results to uncertainties in several input parameters. The sensitivity study shows that the uncertainty in peak waste package temperatures due to in-drift parameters is <3 C.
Thermally-induced natural convection heat transfer in the annulus between horizontal concentric cylinders has been studied using the commercial code Fluent. The boundary layers are meshed all the way to the wall because forced convection wall functions are not appropriate. Various one-and two-equation turbulence models have been considered. Overall and local heat transfer rates are compared with existing experimental data.
The GEO-SEQ Project is investigating methods for geological sequestration of CO{sub 2}. This project, which is directed by LBNL and includes a number of other industrial, university, and National Laboratory partners, is evaluating computer simulation models including TOUGH2. One of the problems to be considered is Enhanced Coal Bed Methane (ECBM) recovery. In this scenario, CO2 is pumped into methane-rich coal beds. Due to adsorption processes, the CO2 is sorbed onto the coal, which displaces the previously sorbed methane (CH4). The released methane can then be recovered, at least partially offsetting the cost of CO2 sequestration. Modifications have been made to the EOS7R equation of state in TOUGH2 to include the extended Langmuir isotherm for sorbing gases, including the change in porosity associated with the sorbed gas mass. Comparison to hand calculations for pure gas and binary mixtures shows very good agreement. Application to a CO{sub 2} well injection problem given by Law et al. (2002) shows good agreement considering the differences in the equations of state.
Military test and training ranges operate with live fire engagements to provide realism important to the maintenance of key tactical skills. Ordnance detonations during these operations typically produce minute residues of parent explosive chemical compounds. Occasional low order detonations also disperse solid phase energetic material onto the surface soil. These detonation remnants are implicated in chemical contamination impacts to groundwater on a limited set of ranges where environmental characterization projects have occurred. Key questions arise regarding how these residues and the environmental conditions (e.g. weather and geostratigraphy) contribute to groundwater pollution impacts. This report documents interim results of experimental work evaluating mass transfer processes from solid phase energetics to soil pore water. The experimental work is used as a basis to formulate a mass transfer numerical model, which has been incorporated into the porous media simulation code T2TNT. Experimental work to date with Composition B explosive has shown that column tests typically produce effluents near the temperature dependent solubility limits for RDX and TNT. The influence of water flow rate, temperature, porous media saturation and mass loading is documented. The mass transfer model formulation uses a mass transfer coefficient and surface area function and shows good agreement with the experimental data. Continued experimental work is necessary to evaluate solid phase particle size and 2-dimensional effects, and actual low order detonation debris. Simulation model improvements will continue leading to a capability to complete screening assessments of the impacts of military range operations on groundwater quality.
Buried landmines are often detected through the chemical signature in the air above the soil surface by mine detection dogs. Environmental processes play a significant role in the chemical signature available for detection. Due to the shallow burial depth of landmines, the weather influences the release of chemicals from the landmine, transport through the soil to the surface, and degradation processes in the soil. The effect of weather on the landmine chemical signature from a PMN landmine was evaluated with the T2TNT code for Kabul, Afghanistan. Results for TNT and DNT gas-phase and soil solid-phase concentrations are presented as a function of time of the day and time of the year.
The objective of this heat transfer and fluid flow study is to assess the ability of a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code to reproduce the experimental results, numerical simulation results, and heat transfer correlation equations developed in the literature for natural convection heat transfer within the annulus of horizontal concentric cylinders. In the literature, a variety of heat transfer expressions have been developed to compute average equivalent thermal conductivities. However, the expressions have been primarily developed for very small inner and outer cylinder radii and gap-widths. In this comparative study, interest is primarily focused on large gap widths (on the order of half meter or greater) and large radius ratios. From the steady-state CFD analysis it is found that the concentric cylinder models for the larger geometries compare favorably to the results of the Kuehn and Goldstein correlations in the Rayleigh number range of about 10{sup 5} to 10{sup 8} (a range that encompasses the laminar to turbulent transition). For Rayleigh numbers greater than 10{sup 8}, both numerical simulations and experimental data (from the literature) are consistent and result in slightly lower equivalent thermal conductivities than those obtained from the Kuehn and Goldstein correlations.
A probabilistic, risk-based performance-assessment methodology is being developed to assist designers, regulators, and involved stakeholders in the selection, design, and monitoring of long-term covers for contaminated subsurface sites. This report presents an example of the risk-based performance-assessment method using a repository site in Monticello, Utah. At the Monticello site, a long-term cover system is being used to isolate long-lived uranium mill tailings from the biosphere. Computer models were developed to simulate relevant features, events, and processes that include water flux through the cover, source-term release, vadose-zone transport, saturated-zone transport, gas transport, and exposure pathways. The component models were then integrated into a total-system performance-assessment model, and uncertainty distributions of important input parameters were constructed and sampled in a stochastic Monte Carlo analysis. Multiple realizations were simulated using the integrated model to produce cumulative distribution functions of the performance metrics, which were used to assess cover performance for both present- and long-term future conditions. Performance metrics for this study included the water percolation reaching the uranium mill tailings, radon flux at the surface, groundwater concentrations, and dose. Results of this study can be used to identify engineering and environmental parameters (e.g., liner properties, long-term precipitation, distribution coefficients) that require additional data to reduce uncertainty in the calculations and improve confidence in the model predictions. These results can also be used to evaluate alternative engineering designs and to identify parameters most important to long-term performance.
The GEO-SEQ Project is investigating methods for geological sequestration of CO{sub 2}. This project, which is directed by LBNL and includes a number of other industrial, university, and national laboratory partners, is evaluating computer simulation methods including TOUGH2 for this problem. The TOUGH2 code, which is a widely used code for flow and transport in porous and fractured media, includes simplified methods for gas diffusion based on a direct application of Fick's law. As shown by Webb (1998) and others, the Dusty Gas Model (DGM) is better than Fick's Law for modeling gas-phase diffusion in porous media. In order to improve gas-phase diffusion modeling for the GEO-SEQ Project, the EOS7R module in the TOUGH2 code has been modified to include the Dusty Gas Model as documented in this report. In addition, the liquid diffusion model has been changed from a mass-based formulation to a mole-based model. Modifications for separate and coupled diffusion in the gas and liquid phases have also been completed. The results from the DGM are compared to the Fick's law behavior for TCE and PCE diffusion across a capillary fringe. The differences are small due to the relatively high permeability (k = 10{sup -11} m{sup 2}) of the problem and the small mole fraction of the gases. Additional comparisons for lower permeabilities and higher mole fractions may be useful.
Two-phase characteristic curves are necessary for the simulation of water and vapor flow in porous media. Existing functions such as van Genuchten [1980], Brooks and Corey [1966], and Luckner et al. [1989] have significant limitations in the dry region as the liquid saturation goes to zero. This region, which is important in a number of applications, including liquid and vapor flow and vapor-solid sorption, has been the subject of a number of previous investigations. Most previous studies extended standard capillary pressure curves into the adsorption region to zero water content and required a refitting of the revised curves to the data. In contrast, the present method provides for a simple extension of existing capillary pressure curves without the need to refit the experimental data. Therefore previous curve fits can be used, and the transition between the existing fit and the relationship in the adsorption region is easily calculated. The data-model comparison shows good agreement. This extension is a simple and convenient way to extend existing curves to the dry region.
As part of the Laboratory-Directed Research and Development (LDRD) Program at Sandia National Laboratories, an investigation into the existence of enhanced vapor-phase diffusion (EVD) in porous media has been conducted. A thorough literature review was initially performed across multiple disciplines (soil science and engineering), and based on this review, the existence of EVD was found to be questionable. As a result, modeling and experiments were initiated to investigate the existence of EVD. In this LDRD, the first mechanistic model of EVD was developed which demonstrated the mechanisms responsible for EVD. The first direct measurements of EVD have also been conducted at multiple scales. Measurements have been made at the pore scale, in a two- dimensional network as represented by a fracture aperture, and in a porous medium. Significant enhancement of vapor-phase transport relative to Fickian diffusion was measured in all cases. The modeling and experimental results provide additional mechanisms for EVD beyond those presented by the generally accepted model of Philip and deVries (1957), which required a thermal gradient for EVD to exist. Modeling and experimental results show significant enhancement under isothermal conditions. Application of EVD to vapor transport in the near-surface vadose zone show a significant variation between no enhancement, the model of Philip and deVries, and the present results. Based on this information, the model of Philip and deVries may need to be modified, and additional studies are recommended.
Ross (1990) developed an analytical relationship to calculate the diversion length of a tilted fine-over-coarse capillary barrier. Oldenburg and Pruess compared TOUGH2 simulation results to the diversion length predicted by Ross` formula using upstream and harmonic weighting. The results were mixed. The qualitative agreement is reasonable but the quantitative comparison is poor, especially for upstream weighting. The proximity of the water table to the fine-coarse interface at breakthrough has been proposed as a possible reason for the poor agreement. In the present study, the Oldenburg and Pruess problem is extended to address the water table issue. When the water table is sufficiently far away from the interface at breakthrough, good qualitative and quantitative agreement is obtained using upstream weighting.
Two models are commonly used to analyze gas-phase diffusion in porous media in the presence of advection, the Advective-Dispersive Model (ADM) and the Dusty-gas Model (DGM). The ADM, which is used in TOUGH2, is based on a simple linear addition of advection calculated by Darcy`s law and ordinary diffusion using Fick`s law with a porosity-tortuosity-gas saturation multiplier to account for the porous medium. Another approach for gas-phase transport in porous media is the Dusty-Gas Model. This model applies the kinetic theory of gases to the gaseous components and the porous media (or dust) to combine transport due to diffusion and advection that includes porous medium effects. The two approaches are compared in this paper.
TOUGH2 is a porous media code which is widely-used for simulating flow and transport in fractured and porous media. TOUGH2 is generally employed using REV (Representative Elementary Volume) size elements or larger volumes. However, because TOUGH2 solves mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, it can also be used for any size volumes as long as the proper constitutive relationships are included. The present paper discusses application of TOUGH2 to pore-scale modeling of enhanced vapor diffusion in porous media, and the changes and approximations that were employed.
The excavation of underground radioactive waste repositories produces conditions where the repository is underpressured relative to the surrounding host rock, resulting in groundwater inflow to the repository. Groundwater has been shown to enhance gas generation from emplaced waste forms, which in turn expedites repository pressurization. Repository pressurization from waste-generated gas results in an increased driving force for dissolved radionuclide movement away from the repository. Repository excavation also produces a zone surrounding the repository having disturbed hydrologic and geomechanical properties. Within this disturbed rock zone (DRZ), intrinsic permeability and porosity change over time due to the formation of microfractures and grain boundary dilation. Additionally, elastic and inelastic changes in pore volume, driven by excavation-related stress redistribution, may cause variations in the near-field fluid pressure and fluid saturation distributions that influence groundwater flow toward the repository excavation. Increased permeability, decreased pore-fluid pressure, and partially saturated conditions within the DRZ also contribute to enhancing potential release pathways away from the repository. Freeze et al. describe an enhanced version of TOUGH2 (called TOUGH28W) and its application to model the coupled processes of gas generation, multiphase flow and geomechanical deformation at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) repository. This paper describes a new application of TOUGH28W that couples time-dependent DRZ property changes with multiphase groundwater flow around an underground excavation at WIPP. The results are relevant not only to other salt repositories, but also to repositories in other geologic formations where groundwater inflow and DRZ effects are a concern.
Vapor diffusion in porous media in the presence of its own liquid has often been treated similar to gas diffusion. The gas diffusion rate in porous media is much lower than in free space due to the presence of the porous medium and any liquid present. However, enhanced vapor diffusion has also been postulated such that the diffusion rate may approach free-space values. Existing data and models for enhanced vapor diffusion, including those in TOUGH2, are reviewed in this paper.
The detection and removal of buried unexploded ordnance (UXO) and landmines is one of the most important problems facing the world today. Numerous detection strategies are being developed, including infrared, electrical conductivity, ground-penetrating radar, and chemical sensors. Chemical sensors rely on the detection of TNT molecules, which are transported from buried UXO/landmines by advection and diffusion in the soil. As part of this effort, numerical models are being developed to predict TNT transport in soils including the effect of precipitation and evaporation. Modifications will be made to TOUGH2 for application to the TNT chemical sensing problem. Understanding the fate and transport of TNT in the soil will affect the design, performance and operation of chemical sensors by indicating preferred sensing strategies.
Vapor diffusion in porous media in the presence of its own liquid may be enhanced due to pore-scale processes, such as condensation and evaporation across isolated liquid islands. Webb and Ho (1997) developed a mechanistic pore-scale model of these processes under steady-state conditions in which condensation and evaporation on the liquid island were equal. The vapor diffusion rate was significantly enhanced by these liquid island processes by up to an order of magnitude compared to a dry porous media. However, vapor transport by diffusion is often complicated by transient effects, such as in drying applications, in which net evaporation of liquid may further augment the vapor flux from diffusion. The influence of transient effects on the enhancement factors for vapor diffusion is evaluated in this paper. In addition, the effect of vapor pressure lowering on the enhancement factor and on porescale vapor fluxes is shown.