We are developing a method of constructing compact, three-dimensional photonics systems consisting of optical elements, e.g., lenses and mirrors, photo-detectors, and light sources, e.g., VCSELS or circular-grating lasers. These optical components, both active and passive, are mounted on a lithographically prepared silicon substrate. We refer to the substrate as a micro-optical table (MOT) in analogy with the macroscopic version routinely used in optics laboratories. The MOT is a zero-alignment, microscopic optical-system concept. The position of each optical element relative to other optical elements on the MOT is determined in the layout of the MOT photomask. Each optical element fits into a slot etched in the silicon MOT. The slots are etched using a high-aspect-ratio silicon etching (HARSE) process. Additional positioning features in each slot's cross-section and complementary features on each optical element permit accurate placement of that element's aperture relative to the MOT substrate. In this paper we present the results of the first fabrication and micro-assembly experiments of a silicon-wafer based MOT. Based on these experiments, estimates of position accuracy are reported. We also report on progress in fabrication of lens elements in a hybrid sol-gel material (HSGM). Diffractive optical elements have been patterned in a 13-micron thick HSGM layer on a 150-micron thick soda-lime glass substrate. The measured ms surface roughness was 20 nm. Finally, we describe modeling of MOT systems using non-sequential ray tracing (NSRT).
GaN Schottky diodes were exposed to N2 or H2 Inductively Coupled Plasmas prior to deposition of the rectifying contact. Subsequent annealing, wet photochemical etching or (NH4)2S surface passivation treatments were examined for their effect on diode current- voltage characteristics. We found that either annealing at 750 °C under N2, or removal of ~500-600 Å of the surface essentially restored the initial I-V characteristics. There was no measurable improvement in the plasma-exposed diode behavior with (NH4)2S treatments.
The effect of Inductively Coupled Plasma H{sub 2} or Ar discharges on the breakdown voltage of p-GaN diodes was measured over a range of ion energies and fluxes. The main effect of plasma exposure is a decrease in net acceptor concentration to depths of 400-550{angstrom}. At high ion fluxes or energies there can be type conversion of the initially p-GaN surface. Post etch annealing at 900 C restores the initial conductivity.
Anisotropic, smooth etching of the group-III nitrides has been reported at relatively high rates in high-density plasma etch systems. However, such etch results are often obtained under high de-bias andlor high plasma flux conditions where plasma induced damage can be significant. Despite the fact that the group-III nitrides have higher bonding energies than more conventional III-V compounds, plasma-induced etch damage is still a concern. Attempts to minimize such damage by reducing the ion energy or increasing the chemical activity in the plasma often result in a loss of etch rate or anisotropy which significantly limits critical dimensions and reduces the utility of the process for device applications requiring vertical etch profiles. It is therefore necessary to develop plasma etch processes which couple anisotropy for critical dimension and sidewall profile control and high etch rates with low-damage for optimum device performance. In this study we report changes in sheet resistance and contact resistance for n- and p-type GaN samples exposed to an Ar inductively coupled plasma (ICP). In general, plasma-induced damage was more sensitive to ion bombardment energies as compared to plasma flux. In addition, p-GaN was typically more sensitive to plasma-induced damage as compared to n-GaN.
Four different F{sub 2}-based gases (SF{sub 6}, NF{sub 3}, PF{sub 5}, and BF{sub 3}) were examined for high rate Inductively Coupled Plasma etching of Si. Etch rates up to {approximately}8 {micro}m/min were achieved with pure SF{sub 6} discharges at high source power (1500W) and pressure (35mTorr). A direct comparison of the four feedstock gases under the same plasma conditions showed the Si etch rate to increase in the order BF{sub 3} < NF{sub 3} < PF{sub 5} < SF{sub 6}. This is in good correlation with the average bond energies of the gases, except for NF{sub 3}, which is the least strongly bound. Optical emission spectroscopy showed that the ICP source efficiently dissociated NF{sub 3}, but the etched Si surface morphologies were significantly worse with this gas than with the other 3 gases.
The role of additive noble gases He, Ar and Xe to C&based Inductively Coupled Plasmas for etching of GaN, AIN and InN were examined. The etch rates were a strong function of chlorine concentration, rf chuck power and ICP source power. The highest etch rates for InN were obtained with C12/Xe, while the highest rates for AIN and GaN were obtained with C12/He. Efficient breaking of the 111-nitrogen bond is crucial for attaining high etch rates. The InN etching was dominated by physical sputtering, in contrast to GaN and AIN. In the latter cases, the etch rates were limited by initial breaking of the III-nitrogen bond. Maximum selectivities of -80 for InN to GaN and InN to AIN were obtained.
Sputter-deposited W-based contacts on p-GaN (N{sub A} {approximately} 10{sup 18} cm{sup {minus}3}) display non-ohmic behavior independent of annealing temperature when measured at 25 C. The transition to ohmic behavior occurs above {approximately} 250 C as more of the acceptors become ionized. The optimum annealing temperature is {approximately} 700 C under these conditions. These contacts are much more thermally stable than the conventional Ni/Au metallization, which shows a severely degraded morphology even at 700 C. W-based contacts may be ohmic as-deposited on very heavily doped n-GaN, and the specific contact resistance improves with annealing up to {approximately} 900 C.
GaN implanted with donor(Si, S, Se, Te) or acceptor (Be, Mg, C) species was annealed at 900-1500°C using AlN encapsulation. No redistribution was measured by SIMS for any of the dopants and effective diffusion coefficients are ≤2×10-13 cm2 · s-1 at 1400°C, except Be, which displays damage-enhanced diffusion at 900°C and is immobile once the point defect concentration is removed. Activation efficiency of ∼90% is obtained for Si at 1400°C. TEM of the implanted material shows a strong reduction in lattice disorder at 1400-1500°C compared to previous results at 1100°C. There is minimal interaction of the sputtered AlN with GaN under our conditions, and it is readily removed selectively with KOH.
A comparison of KOH, NaOH and AZ400K solutions for UV photo-assisted etching of undoped and n+ GaN is discussed. The etching is diffusion-limited (Ea < 6kCal·mol-1) under all conditions and is significantly faster with bias applied to the sample during light exposure. No etching of InN was observed, due to the very high n-type background doping (> 1020cm-3) in the material.
Proton implantation in GaN is found to reduce the free carrier density through two mechanisms - first, by creating electron and hole traps at around Ec-0.8eV and Ev+0.9eV that lead to compensation in both n- and p-type material, and second, by leading to formation of (AH)O complexes, where A is any acceptor (Mg, Ca, Zn, Be, Cd). The former mechanism is usefid in creating high resistivity regions for device isolation, whereas the latter produces unintentional acceptor passivation that is detrimental to device performance. The strong affinity of hydrogen for acceptors leads to markedly different redistribution behavior for implanted in n- and p-GaN due to the chemical reaction to form neutral complexes in the latter. The acceptors may be reactivated by simple annealing at 2600{degrees}C, or by electron injection at 25-150{degrees}C that produces debonding of the (AH) centers. Implanted hydrogen is also strongly attracted to regions of strain in heterostructure samples during annealing, leading to pile-up at epi-epi and epi-substrate interfaces. II? spectroscopy shows that implanted hydrogen also decorates VG, defects in undoped and n-GaN.
The role of the inert gas additive (He, Ar, Xe) to C12 Inductively Coupled Plasmas for dry etching of GaAs and GaSb was examined through the effect on etch rate, surface roughness and near-surface stoichiometry. The etch rates for both materials go through a maximum with Clz 0/0 in each type of discharge (C12/'He, C12/Ar, C12/Xc), reflecting the need to have efficient ion-assisted resorption of the etch products. Etch yields initially increase strongly with source power as the chlorine neutral density increases, but decrease again at high powers as the etching becomes reactant-limited. The etched surfaces are generally smoother with Ax or Xe addition, and maintain their stoichiometry.
The effects of the additive noble gases He, Ar and Xe on chlorine-based Inductively Coupled Plasma etching of InP, InSb, InGaP and InGaAs were studied as a function of source power, chuck power and discharge composition. The etch rates of all materials with C12/He and C12/Xe are greater than with C12/Ar. Etch rates in excess of 4.8 pndmin for InP and InSb with C12/He or C12/Xe, 0.9 pndmin for InGaP with C12/Xe, and 3.8 prdmin for InGaAs with Clz/Xe were obtained at 750 W ICP power, 250 W rf power, - 1570 C12 and 5 mTorr. All three plasma chemistries produced smooth morphologies for the etched InGaP surfaces, while the etched surface of InP showed rough morphology under all conditions.
Patterning the group-IH nitrides has been challenging due to their strong bond energies and relatively inert chemical nature as compared to other compound semiconductors. Plasma etch processes have been used almost exclusively to pattern these films. The use of high-density plasma etch systems, including inductively coupled plasmas (ICP), has resulted in relatively high etch rates (often greater than 1.0 pmhnin) with anisotropic profiles and smooth etch morphologies. However, the etch mechanism is often dominated by high ion bombardment energies which can minimize etch selectivity. The use of an ICP-generated BCl~/C12 pkyma has yielded a highly versatile GaN etch process with rates ranging from 100 to 8000 A/rnin making this plasma chemistry a prime candidate for optimization of etch selectivity. In this study, we will report ICP etch rates and selectivities for GaN, AIN, and InN as a function of BCl~/Clz flow ratios, cathode rf-power, and ICP-source power. GaN:InN and GaN:AIN etch selectivities were typically less than 7:1 and showed the strongest dependence on flow ratio. This trend maybe attributed to faster GaN etch rates observed at higher concentrations of atomic Cl which was monitored using optical emission spectroscopy (OES). ~E~~~~f:~ INTRODUCTION DEC j 4898 Etch selectivi
BC13, with addition of Nz, Ar or Hz, is found to provide smooth anisotropic pattern transfer in GaAs, GaN, GaP, GaSb and AIGriAs under Inductively Coupled Plasma conditions, Maxima in the etch rates for these materials are observed at 33% N2 or 87$'40 Hz (by flow) addition to BC13, whereas Ar addition does not show this behavior. Maximum etch rates are typically much higher for GaAs, Gap, GaSb and AIGaAs (-1,2 @rein) than for GaN (-0.3 ymu'min) due to the higher bond energies of the iatter. The rates decrease at higher pressure, saturate with source power (ion flux) and tend to show maxima with chuck power (ion energy). The etched surfaces remain stoichiometric over abroad range of plasma conditions.
A parametric study of etch rates and surface morphologies of In-containing compound semiconductors (InP, InGaAs, InGaAsP, InAs and AlInAs) obtained by BClj-based Inductively Coupled Plasmas is reported. Etch rates in the range 1,500-3,000 &min. are obtained for all the materials at moderate source powers (500 W), with the rates being a strong function of discharge composition, rf chuck power and pressure. Typical root-mean-square surface roughness of-5 nm were obtained for InP, which is worse than the values obtained for Ga-based materials under the same conditions (-1 run). The near surface of etched samples is typically slightly deficient in the group V element, but the depth of this deficiency is small (a few tens of angstroms).
A parametric study of the etch characteristics of GaN, AIN and InN has been earned out with IC1/Ar and IBr/Ar chemistries in an Inductively Coupled Plasma discharge. The etch rates of InN and AIN were relatively independent of plasma composition, while GaN showed increased etch rates with interhalogen concentration. Etch rates for all materials increased with increasing rf chuck power, indicating that higher ion bombardment energies are more efficient in enhancing sputter resorption of etch products. The etch rates increased for source powers up to 500 W and remained relatively thereafter for all materials, while GaN and InN showed maximum etch rates with increasing pressure. The etched GaN showed extremely smooth surfaces, which were somewhat better with IBr/Ar than with IC1/Ar. Maximum selectivities of- 14 for InN over GaN and >25 for InN over AIN were obtained with both chemistries.
High density plasma etching of GaAs, GaSb and AIGaAs was performed in IC1/Ar and lBr/Ar chemistries using an Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) source. GaSb and AlGaAs showed maxima in their etch rates for both plasma chemistries as a function of interhalogen percentage, while GaAs showed increased etch rates with plasma composition in both chemistries. Etch rates of all materials increased substantially with increasing rf chuck power, but rapidly decreased with chamber pressure. Selectivities > 10 for GaAs and GaSb over AlGaAs were obtained in both chemistries. The etched surfaces of GaAs showed smooth morphology, which were somewhat better with IC1/Ar than with IBr/& discharge. Auger Electron Spectroscopy analysis revealed equi-rate of removal of group III and V components or the corresponding etch products, maintaining the stoichiometry of the etched surface.
A parametric study of Inductively Coupled Plasma etching of InP, InSb, InGaP and InGaAs has been carried out in IC1/Ar and IBr/Ar chemistries. Etch rates in excess of 3.1 prrdmin for InP, 3.6 prnh-nin for InSb, 2.3 pm/min for InGaP and 2.2 ~rrdmin for InGaAs were obtained in IBr/Ar plasmas. The ICP etching of In-based materials showed a general tendency: the etch rates increased substantially with increasing the ICP source power and rf chuck power in both chemistries, while they decreased with increasing chamber pressure. The IBr/Ar chemistry typically showed higher etch rates than IC1/Ar, but the etched surface mophologies were fairly poor for both chemistries.
The etch rate of GaN under W-assisted photoelectrochemical conditions in KOH solutions is found to be a strong function of illumination intensity, solution molarity, sample bias and material doping level. At low e-h pair generation rates, grain boundaries are selectively etched, while at higher illumination intensities etch rates for unintentionally doped (n - 3x 10^12Gcm-3) GaN are 2 1000 .min-l. The etching is diffusion limited under our conditions with an activation energy of - 0.8kCal.mol-1. The etched surfaces are rough, but retain their stoichiometry. PEC etching is found to selectively reveal grain boundaries in GaN under low light illumination conditions. At high lamp powers the rates increase with sample temperature and the application of bias to the PEC cell, while they go through a maximum with KOH solution molarity. The etching is diffusion-limited, producing rough surface morphologies that are suitable in a limited number of device fabrication steps. The surfaces however appear to remain relatively close to their stoichiometric composition.
A variety of different plasma chemistries, including SF6, Cl2, IC1 and IBr, have been examined for dry etching of 6H-SiC in high ion density plasma tools (Inductively Coupled Plasma and Electron Cyclotron Resonance). Rates up to 4,500~"min-1 were obtained for SF6 plasmas, while much lower rates (S800~.min-') were achieved with Cl2, ICl and IBr. The F2- based chemistries have poor selectivity for SiC over photoresist masks (typically 0.4-0.5), but Ni masks are more robust, and allow etch depths 210pm in the SiC. A micromachining process (sequential etch/deposition (<2,000Angstrom min-1) for SiC steps) designed for Si produces relatively low etch rates.
A systematic study of the etch characteristics of GaN, AlN and InN has been performed with boron halides- (BI{sub 3} and BBr{sub 3}) and interhalogen- (ICl and IBr) based Inductively Coupled Plasmas. Maximum etch selectivities of -100:1 were achieved for InN over both GaN and AlN in the BI{sub 3} mixtures due to the relatively high volatility of the InN etch products and the lower bond strength of InN. Maximum selectivies of- 14 for InN over GaN and >25 for InN over AlN were obtained with ICl and IBr chemistries. The etched surface morphologies of GaN in these four mixtures are similar or better than those of the control sample.
The role of extended and point defects, and key impurities such as C, O and H, on the electrical and optical properties of GaN is reviewed. Recent progress in the development of high reliability contacts, thermal processing, dry and wet etching techniques, implantation doping and isolation and gate insulator technology is detailed. Finally, the performance of GaN-based electronic and photonic devices such as field effect transistors, UV detectors, laser diodes and light-emitting diodes is covered, along with the influence of process-induced or grown-in defects and impurities on the device physics.
Current and future generations of sophisticated compound semiconductor devices require the ability for submicron scale patterning. The situation is being complicated since some of the new devices are based on a wider diversity of materials to be etched. Conventional IUE (Reactive Ion Etching) has been prevalent across the industry so far, but has limitations for materials with high bond strengths or multiple elements. IrI this paper, we suggest high density plasmas such as ECR (Electron Cyclotron Resonance) and ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma), for the etching of ternary compound semiconductors (InGaP, AIInP, AlGaP) which are employed for electronic devices like heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) or high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs), and photonic devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers. High density plasma sources, opeiating at lower pressure, are expected to meet target goals determined in terms of etch rate, surface morphology, surface stoichiometry, selectivity, etc. The etching mechanisms, which are described in this paper, can also be applied to other III-V (GaAs-based, InP-based) as well as III-Nitride since the InGaAIP system shares many of the same properties.
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching characteristics of GaSb and AIGaAsSb have been investigated in BC13/Ar and Clz/Ar plasmas. The etch rates and selectivity between GaSb and AIGaAsSb are reported as functions of plasma chemistry, ICP power, RF self-bias, and chamber pressure. It is found that physical sputtering resorption of the etch products plays a dominant role in BC13/Ar ICP etching, while in Clz/Ar plasma, the chemical reaction dominates the etching. GaSb etch rates exceeding 2 ~rnhnin are achieved in Clz/Ar plasmas with smooth surfaces and anisotropic profiles. In BC13/Ar plasmas, etch rates of 5100 Mmin and 4200 Mmin are obtained for GaSb and AIGaAsSb, respectively. The surfaces of both GaSb and AIGaAsSb etched in BC13/Ar plasmas remain smooth and stoichiometric over the entire range of plasma conditions investigated. This result is attributed to effective removal of etch products by physical sputtering. For a wide range of plasma conditions, the selectivity between GaSb and AIGaAsSb is close to unity, which is desirable for fabricating etched mirrors and gratings for Sb-based mid-IR laser diodes.
GaAs-based metal semiconductor field effect transistors (MESFETS), heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) and high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) have been exposed to ECR SiJ&/NH3 discharges for deposition of SiNX passivating layers. The effect of source power, rf chuck power, pressure and plasma composition have been investigated. Effects due to both ion damage and hydrogenation of dopants are observed. For both HEMTs and MESFETS there are no conditions where substantial increases in channel sheet resistivity are not observed, due primarily to (Si-H)O complex formation. In HBTs the carbon-doped base layer is the most susceptible layer to hydrogenation. Ion damage in all three devices is minimized at low rf chuck power, moderate ECR source power and high deposition rates.
W and WSi ohmic contacts on both p- and n-type GaN have been annealed at temperatures from 300-1000 *C. There is minimal reaction (< 100 ~ broadening of the metal/GaN interface) even at 1000 *C. Specific contact resistances in the 10-5 f2-cm2 range are obtained for WSiX on Si-implanted GaN with a peak doping concentration of- 5 x 1020 cm-3, after annealing at 950 `C. On p-GaN, leaky Schottky diode behavior is observed for W, WSiX and Ni/Au contacts at room temperature, but true ohmic characteristics are obtained at 250 - 300 *C, where the specific contact resistances are typically in the 10-2 K2-cm2 range. The best contacts for W and WSiX are obtained after 700 *C annealing for periods of 30- 120 sees. The formation of &WzN interracial phases appear to be important in determining the contact quality.
Deep high-aspect ratio Si etching (HARSE) has shown potential application for passive self-alignment of dissimilar materials and devices on Si carriers or waferboards. The Si can be etched to specific depths and; lateral dimensions to accurately place or locate discrete components (i.e lasers, photodetectors, and fiber optics) on a Si carrier. It is critical to develop processes which maintain the dimensions of the mask, yield highly anisotropic profiles for deep features, and maintain the anisotropy at the base of the etched feature. In this paper the authors report process conditions for HARSE which yield etch rates exceeding 3 {micro}m/min and well controlled, highly anisotropic etch profiles. Examples for potential application to advanced packaging technologies will also be shown.
GaN etching can be affected by a wide variety of parameters including plasma chemistry and plasma density. Chlorine-based plasmas have been the most widely used plasma chemistries to etch GaN due to the high volatility of the GaCl{sub 3} and NCl etch products. The source of Cl and the addition of secondary gases can dramatically influence the etch characteristics primarily due to their effect on the concentration of reactive Cl generated in the plasma. In addition, high-density plasma etch systems have yielded high quality etching of GaN due to plasma densities which are 2 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than reactive ion etch (RIE) plasma systems. The high plasma densities enhance the bond breaking efficiency of the GaN, the formation of volatile etch products, and the sputter desorption of the etch products from the surface. In this study, the authors report GaN etch results for a high-density inductively coupled plasma (ICP) as a function of BCl{sub 3}:Cl{sub 2} flow ratio, dc-bias, chamber-pressure, and ICP source power. GaN etch rates ranging from {approximately}100 {angstrom}/min to > 8,000 {angstrom}/min were obtained with smooth etch morphology and anisotropic profiles.
We have sputter-deposited 500-1200 Å thick WSi0.45 metallization onto n+ GaN (n≥1019 cm-3) doped either during MOCVD growth or by direct Si+ ion implantation (5×1015 cm-2, 100 keV) activated by RTA at 1100°C for 30 secs. In the epi samples Rc values of ∼10-14 ω cm2 were obtained, and were stable to ∼1000°C. The annealing treatments up to 600°C had little effect on the WSix/GaN interface, but the beta/-W2N phase formed between 700-800°C, concomitant with a strong reduction (approximately a factor of 2) in near-surface crystalline defects in the GaN. Spiking of the metallization down the threading and misfit dislocations was observed at 800°C, extending >5000 Å in some cases. This can create junction shorting in bipolar or thyristor devices, Rc values of <10-6 ωcm2 were obtained on the implanted samples for 950°C annealing, with values of after 1050°C anneals. The lower Rc values compared to epi samples appear to be a result of the higher peak doping achieved, ∼5×1020 cm-3. We observed wide spreads in Rc values over a wafer surface, with the values on 950°C annealed material ranging from 10-7 to 10-4 ω cm2. There appear to be highly nonuniform doping regions in the GaN, perhaps associated with the high defect density (1010 cm-2) in heteroepitaxial material, and this may contribute to the variations observed. We also believe that near-surface stoichiometry is variable in much of the GaN currently produced due to the relative ease of preferential N2 loss and the common use of HT containing growth (and cool-down) ambients. Finally the ohmic contact behavior of WSix on abrupt and graded composition InxAl1-xN layers has been studied as a function of growth temperature, InN mole fraction x=0.5-1) and post WSix deposition annealing treatment. Rc values in the range 10-3/-10sup-5/ ω cm2 are obtained for auto-doped n+ alloys, with the n-type background being little affected by growth conditions (n∼1020 cm-3). InN is the least temperature-stable alloy (les/700°C), and WSix contact morphology is found to depend strongly on the epi growth conditions.
Recent progress in the development of dry and wet etching techniques, implant doping and isolation, thermal processing, gate insulator technology and high reliability contacts is reviewed. Etch selectivities up to 10 for InN over AlN are possible in Inductively Coupled Plasmas using a Cl2/Ar chemistry, but in general selectivities for each binary nitride relative to each other are low ({lt} OR = 2) BECAUSE OF THE HIGH ION ENERGIES NEEDED TO INITIATE ETCHING. IMPROVED N-TYPE OHMIC CONTACT RESISTANCES ARE OBTAINED BY SELECTIVE AREA SI+ IMPLANTATION FOLLOWED BY VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE ({gt}1300 deg C) anneals in which the thermal budget is minimized and AlN encapsulation prevents GaN surface decomposition. Implant isolation is effective in GaN, AlGaN and AlInN, but marginal in InGaN. Candidate gate insulators for GaN include AlN, AlON and Ga(Gd)O(x), but interface state densities are still to high to realize state-of-the-art MIS devices.
Fabrication of group-III nitride devices relies on the ability to pattern features to depths ranging from approximately 1000 angstroms to >5 μm with anisotropic profiles, smooth morphologies, selective etching of one material over another, and a low degree of plasma-induced damage. In this study, GaN etch rates and etch profiles are compared using reactive ion etch (RIE), reactive ion beam etching (RIBE), electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etch systems. RIE yielded the slowest etch rates and sloped etch profiles despite dc-biases >-900 V. ECR and ICP etching yielded the highest rates with anisotropic profiles due to their high plasma flux and the ability to control ion energies independently of plasma density. RIBE etch results also showed anisotropic profiles with slower etch rates than either ECR or ICP possibly due to lower ion flux. InN and AlN etch characteristics are also compared using ICP and RIBE.
Mass spectrometry of the plasma effluent during Reactive Ion Beam Etching (RIBE) of GaAs using an Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) source and a Cl{sub 2}/Ar gas chemistry shows that AsCl{sub 3}, AsCl{sub 2} and AsCl are all detected as etch products for As, while GaCl{sub 2} is the main signal detected for the Ga products. The variation in selective ion currents for the various etch products has been examined as a function of chuck temperature (30--100 C), percentage Cl{sub 2} in the gas flow, beam current (60--180 mA) and beam voltage (200--800 V). The results are consistent with AsCl{sub 3} and GaCl{sub 3} being the main etch product species under their conditions, with fragmentation being responsible for the observed mass spectra.
Cl{sub 2}-based Inductively Coupled Plasmas with low additional dc self- biases(-100V) produce convenient etch rates(500-1500 A /min) for GaN, AlN, InN, InAlN and InGaN. A systematic study of the effects of additive gas(Ar, N{sub 2}, H{sub 2}), discharge composition and ICP source power and chuck power on etch rate and surface morphology has been performed. The general trends are to go through a maximum in etch rate with percent Cl{sub 2} in the discharge for all three mixtures, and to have an increase(decrease) in etch rate with source power(pressure). Since the etching is strongly ion-assisted, anisotropic pattern transfer is readily achieved. Maximum etch selectivities of approximately 6 for InN over the other nitrides were obtained.
The temperature dependence of the specific contact resistance of W and WSi{sub 0.44} contacts on n{sup +} In{sub 0.65}Ga{sub 0.35}N and InN was measured in the range -50 {degrees}C to 125 {degrees}C. The results were compared to theoretical values for different conduction mechanisms, to further elucidate the conduction mechanism in these contact schemes for all but as-deposited metal to InN where thermionic emission appears to be the dominant mechanism. The contacts were found to produce low specific resistance ohmic contacts to InGaN at room temperature, e{sup c} {approximately} 10{sup -7} {Omega} {center_dot} cm{sup 2} for W and e{sub c} of 4x 10{sup -7} {Omega} {center_dot} cm{sup 2} for WSi{sub x}. InN metallized with W produced ohmic contacts with e{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup -7} {Omega} {center_dot} cm{sup 2} and e{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup -6} {Omega} {center_dot} cm{sup 2} for WSi{sub x} at room temperature.
The wide gap materials SiC, GaN and to a lesser extent diamond are attracting great interest for high power/high temperature electronics. There are a host of device processing challenges presented by these materials because of their physical and chemical stability, including difficulty in achieving stable, low contact resistances, especially for one conductivity type, absence of convenient wet etch recipes, generally slow dry etch rates, the high temperatures needed for implant activation, control of suitable gate dielectrics and the lack of cheap, large diameter conducting and semi-insulating substrates. The relatively deep ionization levels of some of the common dopants (Mg, in GaN; B, Al in SiC; P in diamond) means that carrier densities may be low at room temperature even if the impurity is electrically active - this problem will be reduced at elevated temperature, and thus contact resistances will be greatly improved provided the metallization is stable and reliable. Some recent work with CoSi{sub x} on SiC and W-alloys on GaN show promise for improved ohmic contacts. The issue of unintentional hydrogen passivation of dopants will also be covered - this leads to strong increases in resistivity of p-SiC and GaN, but to large decreases in resistivity of diamond. Recent work on development of wet etches has found recipes for AlN (KOH), while photochemical etching of SiC and GaN has been reported. In the latter cases p-type materials is not etched, which can be a major liability in some devices. The dry etch results obtained with various novel reactors, including ICP, ECR and LE4 will be compared - the high ion densities in the former techniques produce the highest etch rates for strongly-bonded materials, but can lead to preferential loss of N from the nitrides and therefore to a highly conducting surface. This is potentially a major problem for fabrication of dry etched, recessed gate FET structures.
Inductively coupled plasma etching of GaN, AlN, InN, InGaN and InAlN was investigated in CH{sub 4}/H{sub 2}/Ar plasmas as a function of dc bias, and ICP power. The etch rates were generally quite low, as is common for III-nitrides in CH{sub 4} based chemistries. The etch rates increased with increasing dc bias. At low rf power (150 W), the etch rates increased with increasing ICP power, while at 350 W rf power, a peak was found between 500 and 750 W ICP power. The etched surfaces were found to be smooth, while selectivities of etch were {le} 6 for InN over GaN, AlN, InGaN and InAlN under all conditions.
The wide gap materials SiC, GaN and to a lesser extent diamond are attracting great interest for high power/high temperature electronics. There are a host of device processing challenges presented by these materials because of their physical and chemical stability, including difficulty in achieving stable, low contact resistances, especially for one conductivity type, absence of convenient wet etch recipes, generally slow dry etch rates, the high temperatures needed for implant activation, control of suitable gate dielectrics and the lack of cheap, large diameter conducting and semi-insulating substrates. The relatively deep ionization levels of some of the common dopants (Mg in GaN; B, Al in SiC; P in diamond) means that carrier densities may be low at room temperature, and thus contact resistances will be greatly improved provided the metallization is stable and reliable. Some recent work with CoSi{sub x} on SiC and W-alloys on GaN show promise for improved ohmic contacts. The issue of unintentional hydrogen passivation of dopants will also be covered - this leads to strong increases in resistivity of p-SiC and GaN, but to large decreases in resistivity of diamond. Recent work on development of wet etches has found recipes for AlN (KOH), while photochemical etching of SiC and GaN has been reported. In the latter cases p-type materials is not etched, which can be a major liability in some devices. The dry etch results obtained with various novel reactors, including ICP, ECR and LE4 will be compared - the high ion densities in the former techniques produce the highest etch rates for strongly-bonded materials, but can lead to preferential loss of N from the nitrides and therefore to a highly conducting surface. This is potentially a major problem for fabrication of dry etched, recessed gate FET structures.
The wide band gap group-III nitride materials continue to generate interest in the semiconductor community with the fabrication of green, blue, and ultraviolet light emitting diodes (LEDs), blue lasers, and high temperature transistors. Realization of more advanced devices requires pattern transfer processes which are well controlled, smooth, highly anisotropic and have etch rates exceeding 0.5 μm/min. The utilization of high-density chlorine-based plasmas including electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) systems has resulted in improved etch quality of the group-III nitrides over more conventional reactive ion etch (RIE) systems.
High-density plasma etching has been an effective patterning technique for the group-III nitrides due to ion fluxes which are 2 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than more conventional reactive ion etch (RIE) systems. GaN etch rates exceeding 0.68 μm/min have been reported in Cl2/H2/Ar inductively coupled plasmas (ICP) at -280 V dc-bias. Under these conditions, the etch mechanism is dominated by ion bombardment energies which can induce damage and minimize etch selectivity. High selectivity etch processes are often necessary for heterostructure devices which are becoming more prominent as growth techniques improve. In this study, we will report high-density ICP etch rates and selectivities for GaN, AlN, and InN as a function of cathode power, ICP-source power, and chamber pressure. GaN:AlN selectivities >8:1 were observed in a Cl2/Ar plasma at 10 m Torr pressure, 500 W ICP-source power, and 130 W cathode rf-power, while the GaN:InN selectivity was optimized at approximately 6.5:1 at 5 m Torr, 500 W ICP-source power, and 130 W cathode rf-power.
Fabrication of group-III nitride electronic and photonic devices relies heavily on the ability to pattern features with anisotropic profiles, smooth surface morphologies, etch rates often exceeding 0.5 μm/min, and a low degree of plasma-induced damage. Patterning these materials has been especially difficult due to their high bond energies and their relatively inert chemical nature as compared to other compound semiconductors. However, high-density plasma etching has been an effective patterning technique due to ion fluxes which are 2 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than conventional RIE systems. GaN etch rates as high as ≈1.3 μm/min have been reported in ECR generated ICl plasmas at-150V de-bias. In this study, we report high-density GaN etch results for ECR- and ICP-generated plasmas as a function of Cl2- and BCl3-based plasma chemistries.
Plasma-induced-damage often degrades the electrical and optical properties of compound semiconductor devices. Despite the fact that the binding energy of GaN is larger than that for more conventional III--V compounds, etch damage is still a concern. Photoluminescence measurements and atomic force microscopy have been used to determine the damage induced in GaN by exposure to both electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) and inductively coupled plasmas (ICP) generated Ar plasmas.
Deep etching of GaAs is a critical process step required for many device applications including fabrication of through-substrate via holes for monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs). Use of high-density plasmas, including inductively coupled plasmas (ICP), offers an alternative approach to etching vias as compared to more conventional parallel plate reactive ion etch systems. This paper reports ICP etching of GaAs vias at etch rates of about 5.3 {mu}m/min with via profiles ranging from highly anistropic to conical.
Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) sources are extremely promising for large-area, high-ion density etching or deposition processes. In this review the authors compare results for GaAs and GaN etching with both ICP and Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) sources on the same single-wafer platform. The ICP is shown to be capable of very high rates with excellent anisotropy for fabrication of GaAs vias or deep mesas in GaAs or GaN waveguide structures.
The group III-nitrides continue to generate interest due to their wide band gaps and high dielectric constants. These materials have made significant impact on the compound semiconductor community as blue and ultraviolet light emitting diodes (LEDs). Realization of more advanced devices; including lasers and high temperature electronics, requires dry etch processes which are well controlled, smooth, highly anisotropic and have etch rates exceeding 0.5 {mu}m/min. In this paper, we compare electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), inductively coupled plasma (ICP), and reactive ion etch (RIE) etch results for GaN. These are the first ICP etch results reported for GaN. We also report ECR etch rates for GaN as a function of growth technique.
W, WSi{sub 0.44} and Ti/Al contacts were examined on n{sup +} In{sub 0.65}Ga{sub 0.35}N, InN and In{sub 0.75}Al{sub 0.25}N. W was found to produce low specific contact resistance ({rho}{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup {minus}7} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2}) ohmic contacts to InGaN, with significant reaction between metal and semiconductor at 900 {degrees}C mainly due to out diffusion of In and N. WSi{sub x} showed an as-deposited {rho}{sub c} of 4{times}10{sup {minus}7} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2} but this degraded significantly with subsequent annealing. Ti/Al contacts were stable to {approximately} 600 {degrees}C ({rho}{sub c} {approximately} 4{times}10{sup {minus}7} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2} at {le}600 {degrees}C). The surfaces of these contacts remain smooth to 800 {degrees}C for W and WSi{sub x} and 650 {degrees}C for Ti/Al. InN contacted with W and Ti/Al produced ohmic contacts with {rho}{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup {minus}7} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2} and for WSi{sub x} {rho}{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup {minus}6} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2}. All remained smooth to {approximately} 600 {degrees}C, but exhibited significant interdiffusion of In, N, W and Ti respectively at higher temperatures. The contact resistances for all three metalization schemes were {ge} 10{sup {minus}4} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2} on InAlN, and degrades with subsequent annealing. The Ti/Al was found to react with the InAlN above 400 {degrees}C, causing the contact resistance to increase rapidly. W and WSi{sub x} proved to be more stable with {rho}{sub c} {approximately} 10{sup {minus}2} and 10{sup {minus}3} {Omega} {center_dot}cm{sup 2} up to 650 {degrees}C and 700 {degrees}C respectively.
The electrical properties of the light ion impurities H, O and C in GaN have been examined in both as-grown and implanted material. H is found to efficiently passivate acceptors such as Mg, Ca and C. Reactivation occurs at {ge} 450 C and is enhanced by minority carrier injection. The hydrogen does not leave the GaN crystal until > 800 C, and its diffusivity is relatively high ({approximately} 10{sup {minus}11} cm{sup 2}/s) even at low temperatures (< 200 C) during injection by wet etching, boiling in water or plasma exposure. Oxygen shows a low donor activation efficiency when implanted into GaN, with an ionization level of 30--40 meV. It is essentially immobile up to 1,100 C. Carbon can produce low p-type levels (3 {times} 10{sup 17} cm{sup {minus}3}) in GaN during MOMBE, although there is some evidence it may also create n-type conduction in other nitrides.
Etch rates up to 7,000 {angstrom}/min. for GaN are obtained in Cl{sub 2}/H{sub 2}/Ar or BCl{sub 3}/Ar ECR discharges at 1--3mTorr and moderate dc biases. Typical rates with HI/H{sub 2} are about a factor of three lower under the same conditions, while CH{sub 4}/H{sub 2} produces maximum rates of only {approximately}2,000 {angstrom}/min. The role of additives such as SF{sub 6}, N{sub 2}, H{sub 2} or Ar to the basic chlorine, bromine, iodine or methane-hydrogen plasma chemistries are discussed. Their effect can be either chemical (in forming volatile products with N) or physical (in breaking bonds or enhancing desorption of the etch products). The nitrides differ from conventional III-V`s in that bond-breaking to allow formation of the etch products is a critical factor. Threshold ion energies for the onset of etching of GaN, InGaN and InAlN are {ge} 75 eV.
Etch rates up to 7000{angstrom}/min for InP and 3500{angstrom}/min for GaAs are obtained for high microwave power (1000W) CH{sub 4}/H{sub 2}/Ar Electron Cyclotron Resonance plasma etching. Preferential loss of the group V element leads to nonstoichiometric, unacceptably rough surfaces on In-based binary semiconductors at microwave powers {ge}400W, regardless of plasma composition. Both Ga- and Al-based materials retain smooth, stoichiometric surfaces even at I000W, but the rates are still much slower than for C1{sub 2} plasma chemistries. The results suggest that CH{sub 4}/H{sub 2} plasmas are not well suited to ECR systems operating at high powers.
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) etching of GaP, GaAs, InP, and InGaAs are reported as a function of percent chlorine-containing gas for Cl2/Ar, Cl2/N2, BCl3/Ar, and BCl3/N2 plasma chemistries. GaAs and GaP etch rates were faster than InP and InGaAs, independent of plasma chemistry due to the low volatility of the InClx etch products. GaAs and GaP etch rates increased as %Cl2 was increased for Cl2/Ar and Cl2/N2 plasmas. The GaAs and GaP etch rates were much slower in BCl3-based plasmas due to lower concentrations of reactive Cl, however enhanced etch rates were observed in BCl3/N2 at 75% BCl3. Smooth etched surfaces were obtained over a wide range of plasma chemistries.